Development of Agriculture in India

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The development of agriculture in India is a complex and lengthy historical process that spans thousands of years, shaping the subcontinent’s civilizations, economy, and culture. India is one of the world’s oldest centers of agriculture, with practices that evolved and adapted to its diverse environments. Here’s an overview of the historical development of agriculture in India:

Prehistoric and Early Developments

1. Neolithic Period (c. 7000–2000 BCE)
   • Early Farming Communities: The earliest evidence of agriculture in India dates back to the Neolithic period, around 7000 BCE, in sites like Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan), which was part of the broader Indus Valley region. Early settlers cultivated barley, wheat, and lentils and domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats.
   • Domestication of Crops: The domestication of various crops began in this period. Early agricultural communities used simple tools and practiced rudimentary farming methods like shifting cultivation and small-scale irrigation.
2. Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE)
   • Advanced Agricultural Techniques: The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world’s earliest urban cultures, saw significant advancements in agriculture. The people of this civilization cultivated wheat, barley, peas, chickpeas, sesame, and cotton, and they had sophisticated irrigation systems that included reservoirs, wells, and canals.
   • Irrigation and Surplus Production: Irrigation and flood management were crucial to sustaining large urban centers. This allowed the production of surplus crops, which supported trade and the growth of cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

Vedic and Post-Vedic Periods

1. Vedic Period (c. 1500–600 BCE)
   • Agricultural Expansion: During the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryan settlers expanded agriculture into the Gangetic plains. This expansion was facilitated by iron tools, which allowed for the clearing of dense forests.
   • Agricultural Practices in Texts: The Vedas, ancient Indian texts, mention various agricultural practices, including the use of plows, irrigation, and crop rotation. The primary crops included rice, wheat, barley, and millets.
2. Mauryan Empire (c. 322–185 BCE)
   • State Support for Agriculture: The Mauryan Empire under rulers like Chandragupta and Ashoka emphasized agriculture as a state priority. The Arthashastra, an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, mentions systematic land management, tax systems based on agricultural output, and state-sponsored irrigation projects.
   • Introduction of New Crops: During this period, new crops like sugarcane were introduced, which would become staple crops in Indian agriculture.

Medieval Period

1. Gupta Empire and Early Medieval Period (c. 320–1200 CE)
   • Agricultural Innovations: The Gupta Empire witnessed continued agricultural growth with advancements in water management and the development of large-scale irrigation systems, including tanks and step wells.
   • Diversification of Crops: There was diversification in crop production, including the introduction and spread of new varieties of rice, pulses, and oilseeds.
2. Sultanate and Mughal Period (c. 1200–1700 CE)
   • Introduction of New Crops and Techniques: The Sultanate and Mughal periods saw the introduction of several new crops from the Middle East and the Americas, such as maize, tomatoes, potatoes, chilies, and tobacco. The Mughals introduced improved techniques, such as crop rotation and enhanced irrigation methods.
   • Land Revenue Systems: The Mughal Empire, particularly under Akbar, implemented a structured land revenue system (Zabt) that linked taxation to the productivity of the land, encouraging better agricultural practices.

Colonial Period

1. British Colonial Era (c. 1757–1947)
   • Commercialization of Agriculture: During the British rule, Indian agriculture became heavily commercialized, focusing on cash crops like cotton, jute, indigo, tea, and opium for export. This shift often led to the neglect of food crops and contributed to famines.
   • Irrigation and Infrastructure: The British introduced extensive irrigation works, including canals and dams, which helped increase agricultural output. However, these projects were often aimed at maximizing revenue rather than benefiting local farmers.
   • Agricultural Research: Institutions like the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (established in 1905) were founded to promote agricultural research, although their primary focus was on improving the productivity of cash crops.

Post-Independence Period

1. Green Revolution (1960s–1970s)
   • Introduction of High-Yield Varieties (HYVs): The Green Revolution in the 1960s was a major turning point in Indian agriculture, marked by the introduction of high-yield varieties of wheat and rice, along with the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and modern irrigation techniques.
   • Increase in Productivity: The Green Revolution significantly increased food grain production, especially in the states of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, making India self-sufficient in food grains by the 1970s.
2. Modern Agricultural Developments
   • Diversification and Technological Advancements: In recent decades, Indian agriculture has diversified into horticulture, floriculture, aquaculture, and organic farming. The use of technology, such as drip irrigation, precision farming, and genetically modified crops, is on the rise.
   • Challenges and Reforms: Modern Indian agriculture faces challenges such as land fragmentation, water scarcity, climate change, and the need for sustainable practices. Government initiatives have focused on increasing farmer incomes, improving infrastructure, and promoting agricultural exports.

Overall, the history of agriculture in India reflects a continuous process of adaptation and innovation, deeply intertwined with the country’s cultural, social, and economic fabric. From ancient irrigation techniques to modern technological advancements, Indian agriculture has evolved to meet the changing needs of its population and environment.

Evidences related to development of agriculture in India

1. Balochistan
   • Sindhu is a marginal region of Balochistan in the system. The expansion of agriculture in this region by Afghanistan from Western Asia was reached before the Indus system.
   • The environmental conditions of this region are very interesting for us because we can know about the emergence of agriculture to a great extent.
   • Bridget and Alchin say, “Climate (in this region) is very high in summer due to extreme extreme and most cold in winter. High valleys are covered with snow for two months. This type of climate is covered with snow.
   • Under circumstances, the communities of the newly-emergent residents must depend on various pastures or animals in their convenience and on the requirements of agriculture. It is clear that in this case water was a main requirement for the residents and animals there until this colonial was not a coincidence.
   • No permanent waterfall or any water source has become available. Due to this lack of water, there was a sure limit in the production of crops and as a result of all these economy. It does in prehistoric times that reservoirs were made to collect water in Balochistan which were made maps of soil or stone dams.
   • The two main sites of this region which attract us are Kili Gul Muhammad and Mundigak.
     • From Kili Gul Muhammad we get evidence of rearing of cattle, sheep, goats, bulls and also evidence of mud bricks pointing towards a permanent life system.
     • These sites appear to have developed in several stages and the pottery found here is a result of its last stage and supports the fact that by this stage the inhabitants here had adopted a non-nomadic life system.
     • Initially these houses were like rectangular caves which were made by smoothening the soil. But gradually bigger houses also came into vogue.
     • These houses were made by baking mud bricks in the sun and had more than one room.
   • Bridget and Allchin write, “Household stoves are found here from the very beginning and earthen ovens or tandoors, probably for baking bread, are initially located outside the house and later probably in the courtyard of the house.”
2. Indus System
   • From a geo-historical point of view, the existence of the Indus Valley is well known. We have called this entity the Indus System to make it more flexible and to facilitate the inclusion of its fringe areas to make our description more precise.
   • The environmental conditions of the Indus System have been very clearly described by Allchin. He writes that the Indus plains provide a very different environment from the highlands of Balochistan.
   • As we see these plains today, in spite of modern flood control measures, the highly erratic rivers keep changing their course over vast flood plains and leave behind large quantities of silt during the annual floods over these vast plains. Perhaps in many ways the same situation must have existed at the time of the settlement of the ancient colonies on these borders.
   • Throughout this period, the rate of deposition of silt (estimated at 1810 cm per millennium in the plains or 250 cm per millennium in the plains) along the riverbanks was such that not only were many valley features submerged, but many of the earliest sites dating from this period were also engulfed by them. But the area of ​​these plains expanded with it, and so did the area of ​​the most fertile alluvial land.
   • The main stream of the Indus flows through a vast alluvial plain, formed by floods, which becomes very fertile after the annual floods of June to September recede.
     • At this time, wheat and gram are cultivated, which last until spring, without the need for ploughing or manure.
   • The riverbanks and the waterways of its tributaries are not used for cultivation and this has encouraged the growth of dense forests then and now.
   • Until some time ago, there was abundant prey available in these forests and these were attractive hunting grounds. The situation was similar in the plains beyond them.
3. Northern Valleys
   • The best evidence of ancient agriculture in this region comes from the Kashmir region.
   • There are two main sites here, of which Burzahom has yielded important evidence of ancient agriculture.
     • From Burzahom, near Srinagar, we have received information about the inhabitants of pit houses.
     • Mud plaster has been used on the walls and sometimes on the floor of these houses. There are also some pits which can probably be reached by stairs.
     • The important point here is that no direct evidence of agriculture has been found in Burzahom.
   • The other site from where such evidence has been found is Gufkral.
     • Here we have been getting evidence from the early stages that wheat, barley and pulses were grown by these inhabitants.
     • There is also evidence that sheep and goats were reared.
     • As Bridget and Allchin say, the civilization of the Kashmir valley appears to be ‘a local adaptation of the special environment of the mountains‘.
     • Hunting and agriculture are the main sources of food for the people here.
4. From the viewpoint of paleoenvironment
   • The eastern region of Sindh is different from the Indus region because this region receives heavy rainfall.
   • Mesolithic residential settlements were present in this region from very ancient times and in many ways the beginning of agriculture here is indicative of the continuity of this civilization.
   • There are two major sites –
     • The sites are Koldihwa and Mahagara, in which we get very interesting evidence related to agriculture.
     • The dwellings here were built in the shape of round huts which were built on wooden pillars. The holes in which these pillars were buried properly indicate the size and type of the huts that they were round in shape.
     • The most important achievement is the discovery of rice husk, from which it can be assumed that perhaps this was the oldest civilization related to rice cultivation.
     • The moist climate here, which was the result of more monsoon, was the main reason for rice cultivation. But the ideology that Koldihwa and Mahagara were the oldest rice producing places, is controversial according to Irfan Habib. According to him, the age of the sites Koldihwa and Mahagara is not properly understood and in fact, the oldest evidence of rice cultivation is found from Chopani Mando of Bolan Valley of South Allahabad, which is situated between Tons and Son rivers.
5. Indian Peninsula
   • Evidence of ancient agriculture in this part of India was mainly found in the Karnataka region. These sites are generally known as ash mounds and are located in Utnoor, Kupgal, Kodakal and Pallavoy.
   • It indicates that there was no external influence in the development of these sites and the development of these Neolithic civilization was the result of the intuition of the inhabitants there.
   • The geographical characteristics of these Neolithic sites have been described by Bridget and Allen as follows – In those parts of the Deccan Plateau where these new types developed, their main features are the remains of granite hills which appear to rise from the far-reaching ‘sea’ of black cotton soil.
     • These hills were very suitable for settlements and wherever there were suitable caves or rock shelters in these hills, they were used for living and residential purposes and often a flat stone roof was built in the front to make it larger in size.
     • Small plateaus on the top of hills or flat areas on the sides of hills were also used in the same way and were artificially leveled or raised.
     • At some places there were large single platforms while at other places several small platforms were seen rising up one after the other on the slope of the hill.
     • In this ancient period, it was difficult to find these sites on the banks of rivers away from the hills.
     • There is no evidence of any building structure or structure associated with these prehistoric settlements in this area.”
   • It is very interesting that the ash mound sites are contemporary with the early Harappan period.
   • The most important feature found here is the cattle enclosures where domesticated cattle, such as sheep and goats, were kept together in enclosures. The inner area of ​​these enclosures was used as a cattle pen while the outer part was a place for shepherds to live.
   • There is no direct evidence of grain cultivation from these sites. But the discovery of tools such as grinding stones, millstones and stone axes indicate that agriculture was practised there.

Agriculture Diffusion and Regional Specificities in North India

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The diffusion of agriculture in North India was marked by elements of continuity and change. The antiquities of irrigation, list of basic crops including rice and use of primitive plough can be dated to Harappan and post-Harappan period. However, the changes occurred in the nature of agricultural practices. These changes were to a large extent influenced by several of variables including ecology. While high yield variety of wet-rice cultivation was the hallmark of Gangetic plains the emerging variations in agriculture mechanism ushered in a new phase of irrigation outside this region. The transition from a plough-ard and wooden ploughshare to an iron one signalled the beginning of complex state societies. Extension of cultivation continued in the medieval period too. Some areas were colonised as late as 19th
century AD. However, the real changes came in the form of introduction of several new vegetables and fruits by various agencies in the 16th and 17th centuries AD.

Geography and Subsistence Strategies

1. Geographical Influence on Agriculture
   • The spread and regional variations in agriculture in early India were heavily dependent on the geographical landscape, which included a range of environments from fertile river valleys to arid and forested areas.
   • The types of soils, such as alluvial, red, and laterite, and their differing nutrient levels, water retention capabilities, and pliability, influenced the agricultural viability of various regions. For instance, fertile alluvial plains were preferred for cultivation despite the risks associated with river flooding.
2. Subsistence Strategies
   • Subsistence strategies in early India included a variety of agricultural methods ranging from shifting cultivation (slash and burn, or jhoom) to more settled forms like hoe and plough cultivation.
   • The transition from a reliance on pastoralism to more settled agricultural practices was a significant shift, especially in areas where wet-rice cultivation became predominant. This shift supported the growth of complex societies in fertile regions like the Gangetic plains.
   • The river systems of India played a crucial role, with fertile silt brought by rivers like the Indus and Ganges attracting agricultural communities, while others with erratic flows, like the Sutlej and Brahmaputra, posed challenges due to the risks of flooding or drought.
3. Environmental Constraints and Adaptations
   • The harsh environmental conditions in some areas, such as dense forests or arid deserts, required adaptations like the use of iron tools for land clearance and improved plough technology to access fertile soils.
   • Forests and their inhabitants, often seen as distinct from the settled agricultural areas, were depicted in early Indian literature as wild and untamed, yet these zones also played a role in the evolving agrarian landscape, with some forest dwellers transitioning to sedentary farming practices over time.
4. Settlement Patterns and Agricultural Expansion
   • Settlements in wetter areas with abundant rainfall, such as Bengal and Orissa, were often characterized by dense vegetation and rain-fed agriculture, whereas drier areas like Western Rajasthan and parts of the northwest practiced pastoralism and limited cultivation.
   • The environmental setting also influenced the rise and spread of urban centers, with fertile and well-irrigated regions supporting larger and more complex societies.

Vana/Aranya and Ksetra/Janapada Dichotomy

• Vana/Aranya: These terms refer to forests or wilderness areas that were often considered unpredictable and home to wild animals and forest-dwelling communities.
  • Early Indian texts often depicted these spaces as dangerous and inhabited by demonic figures or primitive tribes such as the Pulindas, Nishadas, and Sabaras.
  • As described in the Mahabharata, the process of burning of Khandava vana for the settlement of Indraprastha destroyed many such demonic creatures along with animals and human beings. These forests and their inhabitants were juxtaposed to the predictable world of plough agriculturists.
• Ksetra/Janapada: These terms describe cultivated lands or settled regions, typically associated with agricultural communities and organized societies.
  • The Ksetra represents the world of plough agriculture and is linked to settled, predictable environments where human activities are governed by agriculture and state control.
• Theoretical Divide
  • The dichotomy represents a theoretical opposition between the untamed wilderness of the forests (Vana/Aranya) and the orderly, cultivated lands (Ksetra/Janapada).
  • In early Indian literature, this divide often symbolizes the contrast between chaos and order, or between the natural and the human-modified environment.
  • Forests were seen as the realm of unpredictability and danger, whereas cultivated lands symbolized control, productivity, and civilization. This division was not just physical but also cultural and social, with forest dwellers often being marginalized or romanticized in varying contexts.
• Overlap and Interactions
  • Despite the theoretical separation, there was significant overlap in practice.
  • The boundaries between Vana/Aranya and Ksetra/Janapada were neither fixed nor immutable.
  • Forest dwellers were not always hunter-gatherers; they also engaged in shifting cultivation, horticulture, or even sedentary agriculture.
  • The perceived opposition between these spaces was more conceptual than practical, with interactions and transitions occurring frequently. For example, some forest dwellers integrated into agricultural societies or transformed their subsistence practices to include more settled forms of farming.
  • Literary references, such as the burning of the Khandava forest in the Mahabharata, illustrate the transformative interaction between these spaces as forests were cleared to make way for new settlements like Indraprastha. Additionally, historical texts like the Harshacharita mention the acculturation of forest dwellers into more agrarian lifestyles, demonstrating the fluidity of these boundaries.
• Cultural and Historical Significance
  • Over time, the forests, initially seen as domains of fear and unpredictability, also became places of retreat for ascetics and were romanticized as ideal settings for spiritual pursuits and hermitages.
  • The state played a role in managing these landscapes, as suggested by Kautilya’s Arthashastra, which recommended strict state control over forest clearance to prevent over-exploitation and maintain a balance between these contrasting spaces.

Aftermath of Harappan Civilization

The aftermath of the Harappan civilization refers to the period following the decline of the urban Harappan society, during which there was a significant transformation in the nature of agricultural and societal practices in the region. This period is characterized by the continuation and adaptation of agriculture and the emergence of new cultural and subsistence patterns.

1. Post-Urban Harappan Situation
   • After the decline of the urban centers of the Harappan civilization around 1900 BCE, various smaller and less urbanized cultures emerged in the region.
   • The agricultural practices of these cultures showed continuity with, as well as deviations from, those of the Harappans.
   • In the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), for instance, the Swat Culture IV (circa 1800-1400 BCE) cultivated crops such as wheat, barley, rice, and lentils and domesticated animals like cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs.
   • Similar patterns of cultivation were observed in other areas like the Kachhi plains of Northeastern Baluchistan, where both Rabi and Kharif crops were grown, including wheat, barley, oats, and millets.
   • Main Sites –
     • Swat Culture IV (North West Frontier Province – NWFP):
       • Location: Present-day northern Pakistan, including the Swat Valley.
       • Characteristics: This culture is dated to approximately 1800-1400 BCE. The people of Swat Culture IV engaged in the cultivation of wheat, barley, rice, oats, lentils, and grapes. They also domesticated animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs, which were integral to their subsistence strategies.
     • Kachhi Plains (Northeastern Baluchistan):
       • Key Sites: Sibri and Pirak.
       • Characteristics: In these plains, both Rabi (winter) and Kharif (summer) crops were grown. Important crops included wheat, barley, oats, chickpeas, rice, and millets. Livestock such as goats, sheep, and humped bulls were domesticated, indicating a mixed farming and pastoral economy.
     • Jhukar Culture:
       • Key Sites: Jhukar (north of Mohenjodaro), Chanhudaro, Amri, and Mohenjodaro.
       • Characteristics: The Jhukar Culture is notable for its few settlements and provides limited evidence of agricultural practices. It represents one of the smaller post-Harappan cultures that occupied parts of Sindh, Pakistan.
     • Cemetery H Culture:
       • Location: Sites like Harappa in Punjab, India, and adjoining areas.
       • Characteristics: This culture is marked by the introduction of crops like rice and finger millet (ragi) during the post-urban period. Excavations at sites like Hullas have revealed a variety of Rabi crops, including wheat, barley, lentils, and oats, along with Kharif crops like rice and millets.
     • Rangpur (Gujarat):
       • Characteristics: Rangpur is one of the significant post-Harappan sites in Gujarat. It showed evidence of cultivating millets and limited rice cultivation during the transition phase. The environmental conditions in this region included a dry forest, indicating a different climate from the core Harappan areas.
     • Rojdi (Gujarat):
       • Characteristics: Another important site in Gujarat, Rojdi, revealed evidence of Kharif crops such as millets (ragi, bajra, jowar) and Rabi crops like lentils and peas. However, unlike other post-Harappan sites, rice was not prominently found here, reflecting regional agricultural variations.
     • Punjab, Haryana, and Northwestern Uttar Pradesh:
       • Characteristics: These regions saw an increase in settlements, possibly due to migrations from the declining Harappan core areas. The fertile floodplains and increased rainfall in these upper reaches of the Sutlej-Yamuna divide and the upper Doab supported rice cultivation alongside other crops like millets and wheat.
2. Diversity of Regional Cultures
   • The post-Harappan period saw a diverse range of regional cultures with distinct agricultural practices.
   • In Punjab, Haryana, and Northwestern Uttar Pradesh, there was an increase in settlements, possibly due to the migration of communities from the declining Harappan core areas to the upper reaches of the Sutlej-Yamuna divide and the upper Doab.
   • Different crops were cultivated in these new settlements, including rice, millets, wheat, barley, and various pulses. For example, at the site of Rangpur in Gujarat, a dry climate prevailed, and millet cultivation was predominant, while in other areas, crops such as rice were increasingly grown.
3. Agro-Pastoralism in Chalcolithic Cultures
   • Outside the core Harappan region, many Chalcolithic cultures exhibited a mix of hunting-gathering, pastoralism, and agriculture. The integration of these subsistence strategies often reflected local environmental conditions and available resources.
   • For example, the use of early ploughs and sickles in the Swat Valley, dated to around 1300/1200 BCE, suggests that these communities were moving towards more settled forms of agriculture. The plough-ard (a type of plough) was used to prepare fields for planting, indicating the evolution of agricultural techniques.
   • In the Gangetic plains, the peasant, unlike the Indus culture, was no longer confined to the narrow strips of flood lands enriched by fresh doses of moisture and silt.
     • The generosity of monsoons allowed him to increase the yield by shifting to new reclaimed virgin lands from forests.
     • Several chalcolithic cultures like OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery), BRW(Black & Red Ware), PGW(Painted Grey Ware) help us to understand the relationship between environment and crop pattern.
   • The sites of OCP culture were generally located on the riverbanks. Such sites are spread over eastern Punjab, western UP and eastern Rajasthan. Atranjikhera, one of the important excavated sites, remained flooded or water logged for a considerable period of time.
   • BRW culture is found in the upper Ganga-Yamuna and middle Gangetic Doab. Some of the important sites include Atranjikhera, Noh, Jodhpura and Narhan.
   • The sites of PGW culture are located in Western UP, Punjab, Haryana and Northern Rajasthan. These sites were on riverbanks and the inhabitants utilised both the cultivable plains and pastures. A sickle and hoe has been reported from Jakhera. The breeding of cow, buffalo, pig, goat, sheep and horse is indicated from the faunal remains.
4. Transition from Pastoralism to Agriculture
   • The Vedic texts, such as the Rigveda, document the transition from a predominantly pastoral society to a more agriculturally based one. Initially, agriculture served mainly as a supplement to pastoralism, providing fodder for livestock, but over time, it became a central part of the economy.
   • The later Vedic period saw the adoption of iron tools and the expansion of agriculture into the more fertile Ganga-Yamuna Doab, supporting the rise of complex state societies. This transition was marked by the cultivation of additional crops like rice and wheat alongside traditional barley, and the use of more advanced agricultural tools.

Second Urbanisation and Complex State Societies

The “Second Urbanisation and Complex State Societies” refers to a significant historical phase in early India marked by the resurgence of urban centers and the emergence of complex political and social structures after the decline of the Harappan civilization. This phase, which began around the first millennium BCE, was characterized by advancements in agriculture, technology, and trade, leading to the development of new urban centers and state societies.

1. The Environmental Setting
   • The second urbanization occurred in various regions of India, including the central Ganges plains, the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, northwestern borderlands, and the deltas of the eastern coast.
   • These areas shared common environmental features that were conducive to agriculture, such as fertile soils, abundant water resources, and favorable climatic conditions. For instance, the central Ganges plains, characterized by monsoon climate and rich alluvial soils, became a major hub for agricultural activities, especially wet-rice cultivation, which supported the growth of urban centers.
   • The environmental diversity of these regions allowed for different crops and agricultural methods, which, in turn, supported various urban centers like Taxila, Ujjain, and Pataliputra.
2. Iron and Rice as Causative Agents
   • Two key factors driving the second urbanization were the widespread use of iron and the cultivation of wet-rice. Iron tools facilitated the clearing of dense forests, particularly in the heavily wooded Gangetic plains, making large tracts of fertile land available for agriculture.
   • The use of iron-tipped ploughs improved the efficiency of farming, allowing for the cultivation of tougher soils, which was essential for expanding agricultural activities beyond the easily manageable riverine plains.
   • Wet-rice cultivation, with its high yields, played a crucial role in supporting large populations and thus the growth of urban centers. This agricultural abundance enabled the surplus production necessary for sustaining complex state societies, including the Mauryan and subsequent empires.
3. Proliferation of Urban Centers
   • The second urbanization saw a significant increase in the number of urban centers and settlements across northern India. This period is marked by the establishment of cities like Pataliputra, Varanasi, Ujjain, and Mathura, which became important political, economic, and cultural hubs.
   • Urban centers developed as a result of increased trade, the rise of crafts and industries, and the establishment of complex state mechanisms. These cities were often strategically located along major trade routes, rivers, and fertile agricultural zones, which facilitated their growth and prosperity.
4. Complex State Societies
   • With the rise of urban centers, complex state societies began to emerge. These were characterized by organized governance structures, legal and administrative systems, taxation, and the maintenance of law and order.
   • States like the Mahajanapadas, which were large territorial units governed by kings or oligarchies, exemplified the political evolution of the time. These states engaged in territorial expansion, diplomacy, and warfare to consolidate power.
   • The emergence of complex state societies also brought about the codification of social norms, religious practices, and economic regulations, which were crucial in managing the growing urban and rural populations. The integration of diverse communities into cohesive polities was facilitated by these structures.
5. Challenges to Technological Determinism
   • While the proliferation of iron and rice cultivation are often highlighted as key factors in the second urbanization, historians caution against a purely technological explanation. The spread of urbanism and state societies also depended on social, economic, and cultural factors.
   • Some regions developed urban centers without heavy reliance on iron or rice, showing that other elements like trade networks, strategic location, and cultural integration also played vital roles. The development of urban centers was a multifaceted process influenced by the interplay of various factors beyond just technology.

Early India: Irrigation, Reclamation, and Phased Formations

1. Irrigation Patterns in Early India
   • Irrigation was critical to agricultural success in early India, especially in areas with irregular rainfall or challenging environmental conditions. The type and scale of irrigation varied depending on the natural environment, the acreage of land under cultivation, and the sponsoring agent—whether the state, communities, or individuals.
   • Common irrigation techniques included simple channels diverted from rivers or natural streams, water-lifting devices like pot-fitted wheels (Persian wheels), hillside channels for terraced fields, and more advanced structures such as canals, large reservoirs, tanks, and embankments.
   • Kautilya’s Arthashastra classifies modes of water supply into several categories, including manual water carrying, use of animals, and mechanized water lifting. The Mauryan period and later periods saw significant developments in artificial irrigation, as evidenced by archaeological finds of terracotta ring wells, tanks, and canals in sites like Hastinapur, Ujjain, and Taxila.
2. The Concept of Hydraulic Despotism
   • Karl A. Wittfogel’s theory of “Oriental Despotism” suggests that large-scale irrigation projects, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, led to the development of highly centralized, despotic state structures that controlled water resources and agricultural production.
   • Wittfogel classified the Mauryan Empire as a hydraulic state, arguing that its extensive irrigation networks required strong central control, which in turn led to the consolidation of power in the hands of the state. However, this theory has been critiqued for oversimplifying the relationship between irrigation and state power and for failing to account for regional variations in irrigation practices across India.
   • In practice, irrigation in early India was often managed at the local level by communities and provincial authorities, rather than solely by the central state. This decentralized approach allowed for adaptation to local environmental conditions and resource availability.
3. Reclamation and Phased Agricultural Expansion
   • Land reclamation efforts were an essential part of agricultural expansion in early India. These efforts included clearing forests, draining wetlands, and constructing irrigation infrastructure to make previously unusable land arable.
   • The process of reclamation and the establishment of agricultural regions occurred in a phased manner, influenced by environmental features, available technology, and the interplay of historical forces. For instance, the reclamation of the heavily forested Gangetic plains was facilitated by the use of iron tools, which allowed for more effective clearing and cultivation of land.
   • Different regions developed distinct agricultural bases. For example, the Gangetic plains became the epicenter of wet-rice cultivation, while other areas like Rajasthan and Gujarat saw the development of well-based irrigation systems to support agriculture in drier conditions.
4. Formation of Sub-Regions and Regions
   • As agricultural practices and irrigation techniques spread, distinct sub-regions and regions began to emerge, each with unique environmental and cultural characteristics. The proliferation of agrarian knowledge, often facilitated by the migration of Brahmanas and other communities, played a crucial role in this process.
   • The early medieval period, in particular, saw the rise of new centers of power in peripheral areas as the epicenter of agrarian expansion shifted away from the Gangetic plains. By the 3rd century CE, regions like the Himalayan zone, Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, and parts of central and western India had entered the historical phase of state formation, driven by agricultural development and the spread of iron technology.
5. State and Community Roles in Irrigation and Reclamation
   • Both the state and local communities played roles in managing irrigation and land reclamation. While some large-scale projects like canals and major reservoirs required state involvement due to the high costs and organizational needs, many smaller irrigation systems were built and maintained by local communities.
   • The state’s involvement in irrigation and reclamation was often driven by the need to secure agricultural surplus, which was a primary source of revenue. However, as the state became less central in managing these resources over time, local and communal management of water resources became more prominent, allowing for a more flexible and region-specific approach to agricultural development.

The situation in the medieval period in India, particularly concerning agriculture, is marked by the continuation and expansion of agricultural practices, the introduction of new crops, and significant state intervention in land management and irrigation. This period spans the time of the Sultanate and Mughal empires and includes various regional dynamics that influenced agricultural production. Here’s a detailed overview:

Situation in the Medieval Period

1. Agricultural Expansion and State Intervention
   • During the medieval period, rulers of the Sultanate and Mughal empires played an active role in expanding agriculture by promoting land reclamation, forest clearance, and the construction of irrigation facilities. Sultanate rulers like Firuz Tughlaq were known for building extensive canal systems to support agriculture, particularly in areas with insufficient rainfall.
   • The extension of cultivation areas was a significant focus during this period. Large tracts of previously uncultivated or forested land were brought under the plough, facilitated by state policies aimed at boosting agricultural productivity to increase revenue from land taxes.
   • For instance, Firuz Tughlaq constructed canals from the Yamuna, Sutlej, and Ghaggar rivers to irrigate the region of Hissar in Haryana. Similar efforts were made in other regions, such as Multan, where canals and water channels were built to double agricultural production.
2. Crop Patterns: Continuity and Change
   • The medieval period witnessed both continuity and change in crop patterns. Traditional crops such as rice, wheat, barley, and millets continued to be staples across various regions, but new crops were also introduced during this time.
   • Some significant introductions included sugarcane, which began to be cultivated more extensively in the 17th century, and cash crops like cotton and poppy, which saw wider cultivation during the medieval period. Maize, introduced by the Portuguese, began to be grown in Maharashtra and Rajasthan in the latter half of the 17th century.
   • The cultivation of fruits also received attention, with rulers encouraging the growth of pomegranates, grapes, and other fruits, particularly for elite consumption. Portuguese influence introduced new fruits like papaya, cashew nuts, and pineapple, and even coffee found its way into Indian agriculture during this period.
3. Regional Variations in Agriculture
   • Agricultural practices and success varied significantly across regions due to differences in environmental conditions and state policies. For example, while the fertile alluvial plains of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers supported dense agricultural activity, regions like Mewat, which had low rainfall, required artificial irrigation to support cultivation.
   • In the northeastern region, including the Brahmaputra valley, the Ahoms introduced and expanded wet-rice cultivation, which had a transformative impact on the local agricultural landscape. However, shifting cultivation and hunting-gathering practices persisted in the hills surrounding the valley, highlighting the regional diversity in subsistence strategies.
4. State-Controlled Land and Irrigation Management
   • The state’s interest in land revenue led to a more structured approach to land management. The classification of land, assessment of productivity, and direct state intervention in irrigation projects became more formalized during the medieval period.
   • The construction of forts and roads often went hand-in-hand with agricultural expansion, as these infrastructures helped secure newly cultivated lands and protect trade routes. For example, Sultan Balban’s efforts to clear forests and establish forts in Mewat transformed the region into a more agriculturally productive area.
5. Impact of New Crops and Technologies
   • The introduction of new crops and the expansion of existing ones reflected the broader global connections of the medieval Indian economy. For example, the cultivation of tobacco, introduced by the Portuguese, spread rapidly and became integrated into local economies.
   • Irrigation technologies also advanced, with continued use of traditional methods like wells and tanks complemented by newer techniques such as Persian wheels. These technologies allowed for more efficient water management, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, contributing to the expansion of agricultural frontiers.

Overall, the medieval period in India was characterized by a dynamic agricultural landscape shaped by state intervention, the introduction of new crops and technologies, and regional adaptations to varying environmental conditions. These changes laid the groundwork for sustained agricultural productivity and supported the complex state structures of the Sultanate and Mughal empires.

Agriculture Diffusion and Regional Specificities in Indian Peninsula

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Agricultural diffusion in the peninsular India is a vexed issue. The antiquities of crops and cereals and the technology of agriculture and related practices is difficult to ascertain. The scholars have, debated the sources of stimuli. North Indian influences are either discarded or seem to have been adopted in a modified way. Environment and cultural response seems to have played a significant role in the choices made by early communities. Throughout proto-historic and early historic India such choices remained limited and agriculture could not attain an edge over other resource-use practices. The creation of agricultural infrastructure and the consequent spurt in agrarian expansion came with royal initiatives. The entire process was institutionalised and even the driest parts in peninsular India were agriculturally colonised.

Pre-Iron Age Situation

Pre-Iron Age situations refer to the conditions and characteristics of human societies before the widespread adoption of iron tools and weapons. In peninsular India, this period is marked by the development of early agricultural societies that combined farming, pastoralism, and hunting. Here are the key aspects of Pre-Iron Age situations:

1. Geographical and Environmental Context
   • Semi-Arid Regions: Early settlements were located in semi-arid areas with sandy loamy soil and low rainfall, such as the basins of the lower Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar, and Kaveri rivers in present-day Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka.
   • Environmental Limitations: These areas had limited potential for intensive agriculture due to soil quality and water availability, making them more suitable for pastoral activities.
2. Economic and Subsistence Patterns
   • Agro-Pastoral Economy: The economy was a mix of millet farming, cattle and sheep pastoralism, and hunting of wild animals, reflecting a diverse and adaptable approach to subsistence.
   • Rudimentary Agriculture: Agriculture was basic, relying on simple tools and methods. The cultivation of crops like millets was common, and early farming often coexisted with pastoralism.
3. Settlement Patterns
   • Small, Scattered Settlements: Settlements were small and often situated on granite hills, terraces, or valleys between hills, close to water sources but not on major watersheds.
   • Types of Settlements: These included cattle pens, ash mounds, and sites with evidence of grain processing, indicating a pastoral focus with some agricultural activities.
4. Cultural and Technological Development
   • Three-Fold Classification of Settlements: Archaeologists Bridget and Raymond Allchin classified these settlements into three phases:
     • First Phase: Predominantly focused on cattle husbandry with limited evidence of grain processing.
     • Second Phase: Continued emphasis on pastoralism with some expansion of agriculture.
     • Third Phase: Increased use of metals like copper and bronze, with more interaction with Chalcolithic cultures of central and northern Deccan.
   • Limited Use of Metals: Early societies used stone, bone, and later copper and bronze tools, but the use of iron had not yet become widespread.
5. Challenges and Constraints
   • Environmental Constraints: The harsh environmental conditions limited the extent of agricultural development, with dry conditions favoring pastoralism over farming.
   • Limited Agricultural Expansion: The reliance on pastoralism and hunting, combined with environmental challenges, meant that agriculture did not dominate the economy.
6. Interaction and Exchange
   • Cultural Interactions: Early communities interacted with neighboring Chalcolithic cultures, which influenced their economic and technological development.
   • Adaptation to Local Conditions: Settlements adapted to local environmental conditions, which shaped their subsistence strategies and settlement patterns.

Three Fold Classification

The three-fold classification refers to a framework developed by archaeologists Bridget and Raymond Allchin to describe the emergence and development of early settlements in peninsular India during the Pre-Iron Age period. This classification helps in understanding the evolution of these communities in terms of their subsistence patterns, settlement locations, and technological advancements over time. Here’s a detailed look at the three phases of this classification:

1. First Phase (c. 2500-1800 B.C.)
   • Main Features: This phase is characterized by a strong emphasis on cattle husbandry, which played a central role in the economy. Ash mounds or cattle pens are significant archaeological features of this period.
   • Sites: Early settlements such as Utnuru, Kupgal, Kodekal, Palvoy, Piklihal I, Maski I, and Brahmagiri Ia fall under this phase.
   • Technology and Subsistence: The use of stone tools predominated, and there was limited evidence of metal use. The presence of rubbing stones and querns indicates that some grain processing occurred, but agriculture was not yet the dominant activity.
   • Location: Settlements were typically located on granite hills, levelled terraces, or valleys between hills, near streams, but away from major watersheds.
2. Second Phase
   • Main Features: The settlement pattern and economy remained similar to the first phase, with continued reliance on cattle husbandry and the beginnings of more consistent agricultural practices.
   • Sites: Important sites for this period include Piklihal, Brahmagiri (parts Ia and Ib), Sanganakallu I, Tekkalakota I, and Hallur IIa.
   • Technology and Subsistence: There was a gradual increase in the use of agricultural tools and the beginnings of a mixed economy that included both pastoralism and agriculture.
3. Third Phase
   • Main Features: This phase shows enhanced use of metals such as copper and bronze, and increased interaction with Chalcolithic cultures of central and northern Deccan, indicating broader cultural exchanges and technological diffusion.
   • Sites: Key sites include Tekkalakota II, Hallur (layers 8-9), Sanganakallu 1.2, Brahmagiri, and Paiyampalli.
   • Technology and Subsistence: There was a marked improvement in the use of metal tools and an increase in agricultural activities. Settlements were more established, located near streams, and often included varied soil types like tropical black clays, red and black sandy loam, and deltaic alluvium.

Agro-Pastoral Economy

An agro-pastoral economy is a type of economy that combines both agriculture and pastoralism as primary means of subsistence. In this system, communities engage in the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock, including cattle, sheep, goats, and other domesticated animals. This mixed approach allows people to utilize various resources from their environment, catering to both farming and livestock rearing needs.

Key characteristics of an agro-pastoral economy include:

1. Crop Cultivation: This involves growing crops such as grains, pulses, and vegetables, often adapted to the local environmental conditions like soil type and rainfall patterns.
2. Animal Husbandry: Livestock rearing is an integral part of the economy, providing meat, milk, hides, wool, and other animal products. Animals are also used for labor, such as plowing fields or transportation.
3. Environmental Adaptation: The specific mix of agriculture and pastoralism often depends on the ecological conditions, such as the availability of water, soil fertility, and climate. For example, in semi-arid regions with less fertile soil, pastoralism might be more dominant, while in fertile river valleys, agriculture might take precedence.
4. Resilience and Flexibility: By relying on both crops and livestock, agro-pastoral communities can better withstand environmental stresses like droughts or crop failures, as they are not entirely dependent on one source of subsistence.
5. Integration and Co-dependence: The agricultural and pastoral components often support each other; for example, crop residues can feed animals, while animal manure can be used to fertilize fields.

Chalcolithic Cultures of Deccan

The region of Deccan is not uniform. The various sub-regions are:

• Western Deccan with high altitude and strategic passes;
• Upland plateau of the central part;
• The fertile plains of eastern Deccan;
• Mysore plateau
• The upper reaches of Krishna-Tungabhadra plains in the Southern Deccan.

In this region, the archaeologists have extensively explored Chalcolithic cultures of Maharashtra. Here, the various chalcolithic cultures like Svalda, Daimabad, Malwa and Jorwe are dated between ca. 2300 B.C. and 900 B.C.

Environmental Variations and Agrarian Specificities

• About the Deccan :-
  • As far as environment is concerned, the region of Deccan is marked by features such as plateau like morphology, shallow stream valleys, basaltic rocks and chalcedony, agate, chert and jasper (varieties of quartz stone).
  • As the rainfall variability is high, droughts occur frequently.
  • The region abounds in black soil which has moisture retentive minerals. This moisture retentive quality of soil is seen as a boon for rain fed farming in the semi-arid regions.
  • Except in the Tapi valley most streams have narrow flood plains. High flooding, migrating stream courses and the breaching of natural levees (a natural embankment built up by a river) do not affect the settlements in the Deccan plateau as much as they do in the Gangetic plains.
  • It has delimiting impact on agriculture, as there is no fresh addition of alluvial soil and the dependence on monsoons becomes inevitable.
• Excavated Sites
  • Svalda sites
    • The Svalda sites are mostly found in the Tapi basin.
  • Kaothe
    • It is an important excavated site of this culture.
    • Here dwelling pits have been found. In the courtyard of these dwelling pits, deeper pits are found which were probably used for storing grains. These dwellings also had make-shift kitchens.
    • Generally, the early farming cultures in central India and Deccan produced barley (Hordeum vulgare) whereas the Kaothe people were cultivating bajra.
    • The succeeding Chalcolithic people did not cultivate it. Besides agriculture, the Kaothe society also practiced hunting and fishing.
  • Tapi Valley
    • In the Tapi valley farmsteads have been identified at many sites. Located within a distance of three kilometers of major sites they lay in proximity to fields.
    • It is postulated that semi-nomadic Chalcolithic people may have lived and practiced agriculture only during a certain season.
    • Here, the evidence of crop production reveals cultivation of bajra – pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoids).
    • As Tapi valley has the most fertile topography, highest density of sites is found here.
  • Malwa Culture
    • The Malwa culture spread in northern and central parts of Maharashtra in around 1700 B.C., primarily in search of fresh pastures.
    • Inamgaon is an important excavated site of Malwa culture.
    • The subsistence pattern of Malwa people indicates cultivation of barley besides domestication of animals and hunting of wild games.
    • Jorwe culture can be considered as a representative Chalcolithic culture of Maharashtra and is spread over the entire state except the coastal strip on the west and Vidarbha region in the Northeast.
  • Godavari basin, because of undaunting surface records a lesser density while the Bhima valley, more or less a rocky terrain with thin soil cover, has sporadic distribution and the minimum density.
• Settlements
  • Many early farming settlements have been found in the Khandesh region of the Tapi drainage.
    • However, these are located mainly on the tributaries than on the main river.
    • Because of erosion and bad land topography, irrigation and intensive cultivation is not possible here and so population concentration is not found on the banks of river Tapi.
  • Pravara–Godavari valley in itself is also not uniform. While the upper reaches can support few farming settlements, the lower reaches have larger tracts of black soil. However, the settlement density in the lower reaches is not as high as in Tapi valley.
  • In Bhima valley except for certain small patches at Chandoli, Songaon, Walki and Inamgaon, the whole of the basin is dry and does not contain large stretches of cultivable soil.
  • According to Leshnik, the black cotton soil zone clearly represents an ecological adaptation dictated by available technology, knowledge and means.
• Agriculture or Farming
  • Crop production and plant economy is better attested in Malwa and Jorwe cultures at Inamgaon and Daimabad in comparison to other sites.
  • Jorwe farmers practiced rotation of kharif and rabi crops.
  • At Inamgaon, though the principal cereal was barley, cereals like wheat, rice, jowar, kulith (Dolichos lablab), and ragi (Eleusine coracana), green pea, lentil, green and black grams were also cultivated.
  • The traces of an irrigation channel (extant length 118 m; 3.50 m deep in the middle, 4 m wide) and an embankment parallel to it, belonging to Jorwe culture suggests that it could be used as a narrow water tank and water could be diverted to adjoining fields by gravity flow.
    • This irrigation channel is supposed to have helped in the cultivation of wheat and hyacinth bean.
    • The channel probably fell into disuse after BC 1200 or so.
  • Late Jorwe levels show decline of agriculture and rise in the weaning age. At Inamgaon is reported a rapid decrease of the quantity of charred grains with a simultaneous increase in animal bones.

Archaeology and literature: Iron/Megalithic Age and Tamil Anthologies

In peninsular India, several sites including those in the Northern Deccan show an overlapping of Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultural horizons with Iron Age levels. In this section we study the evidence surviving in literature and place it side-by-side with archaeological details.

• Megalithic Distribution and Typology
  • Megalithic burials, strewn in almost the entire peninsula are generally associated with the Iron Age. However, these are not reported from western Deccan. In Andhra, Karimnagar has a large number of such burials.
  • Some of the Megalithic sites in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh including the region of Deccan are T. Narasipur, Jadigenatalli, Ramapuram, Hallur (South Dharwar district), Chandrawalli, Brahmagiri, Maski, Nagarjunakonda (coastal Andhra), Yelleswaram (coastal Andhra), Hashampet, Khapa (Vidarbha region), Tekklaghat (Vidarbha region), Mahurjhari (Vidarbha region) and Ranjala.
  • Megalithic burials reported from the Tamilakam region include Panparripu, Adichanallur (Tinnevelly district), Thirthu, Paravi Perumal Malai (Madura district), Pollachi, Porkalam (Trichur district), Kothapalayam, Pazhayannur, Singanallur, Kodumanal, Tirukkumbuliyur (Trichinapalli district), Alagarai (Trichinapalli district), Ariamedu, Muttarapalayam (near Pondicherry), Suttukkeni (near Pondicherry), Kadamaliaputtur, Perumbayur, Sanur (Chingleput district) and Amirthamangalam.
  • Megalithic people used variety of methods for the burial of the dead.
    • These can be classified as sepulchral (pits, chambers, legged, unlegged) and non-sepulchral (commemorative or memorial) types.
    • The choice of a particular type depended on geological suitability and cultural response.
  • Urn burials though widely distributed are quite common in eastern coastal plains.
  • In Malabar Coast laterite small rock cut chambers have been found.
  • Resources like water, minerals and arable land influenced such choices and had important bearing on megalithic settlements.

• Agro-pastoral Economy
  • The megalithic burial sites were situated away from the habitation.
  • Also owing to non-sedentary behaviour of the pastoral, semi-settled megalithic farmers, evidence for large identifiable habitation places has not been found.
  • The resource constraint or conflicts with the neighbours seemed to have resulted in short periods of occupation and sporadic distribution of such sites.
  • McIntosh has attributed the higher frequency of the grave sites in the early period to environmental deterioration and cultural response.
  • Presence of some agricultural implements like iron axes (flat iron with crossed iron bands for hafting, pick axes), flanged spade, hoe, sickles etc., indicate the practice of agriculture.
  • Some of the systematic archaeobotanical investigations of megalithic sites have shown evidence of remains of rice, barley, wheat, millet, common pea, lentil, grass pea, horse gram, red gram, Indian jujube, etc.
  • The nature of subsistence economy of megalithic people has attracted the attention of a large number of scholars.
  • Megalithic culture, which formed the agrarian background to emergence of historical places in deltaic Krishna-Godavari region, reveals only occasional occurrences of iron objects.
  • The rise of urban centers in the lower Krishna is attributed to this agrarian background.
  • In Telangana plateau the excavations generally attest prolific presence of iron implements that were related to increasing craft production. However, few sites in the plateau like Pochampadu and Peddabankur have also exposed agricultural implements.
  • Because of non-availability of clear-cut patterns, the megalithic economy has been variously characterised as settled agrarian, pastoral nomadic, pastoral and agricultural or semi-sedentary agriculture. It has been suggested by some that this economy was a mixed one with predominance of pastoralism.
  • Some Scholars have suggested that the megalithic black and red ware tradition witnessed population pressure, which coincided with the shift from highland, pastoral cultivation to deltaic paddy producing plough cultivation in Andhra and South India in the post-5th century BC.

• Tamilakkam, Sangam Literature and the Ecological Concept of Tinai
  • Early Tamil anthologies or what is commonly known as Sangam literature contain several strata of Tamil compositions.
  • The earliest and most archaic stratum is believed to belong to Iron Age.
  • The region of Tamilakkam, i.e., the area broadly corresponding to modern day Tamil Nadu and Kerala, offers possibilities for studying various ecological zones and the natural determinants of modes of subsistence in the early historical period.
  • The nature of agriculture in the tinai ranges from slash and burn cultivation of hills and forests (kurinji) to shifting cultivation and pastoralism of lower hills and lesser forests (mullai) to plough agriculture of riverine regions (marutam) to extremely limited possibilities of arid zones (palai) resulting in plundering and hunting activities.
  • Several communities like hunters and food gatherers (kadar/vetar), cattle rearers (ayars/idayars), practitioners of shifting agriculture (kuravar), plunderers and cattle lifters (maravars/kallars), plough agriculturists (ulavars/toluvars), fishermen (partavars/ valayars) and salt manufacturers (umanars) existed in different and often overlapping ecological segments.
  • Both kurinji and mullai had cultivable slopes.
  • The tinais represent micro-eco-zones which overlapped and provided opportunities for interaction. Consequently, macro-zones could be produced.
  • In terms of human communities and material production overlapping segments were centres of their existence.
  • According to Rajan Gurukkal, distribution of four forms of material production namely animal husbandry, shifting cultivation, petty commodity production and plough agriculture are archaeologically attested but their beginnings cannot be dated.

• Plunder and Agriculture
  • Specifically, from agricultural point of view, the region of Tamilakkam could be further divided into Vanpulam (non-agricultural stretches) and Manpulam (riverine agricultural wetland).
  • Pura Nanru, a Tamil anthology contains songs on slash and burn cultivation.
  • As opposed to this, the agriculturists in the wetland area were aware of agrarian technologies like harnessing of bullocks at necks with a cross bar and Tamil anthologies make references to irrigation devices like tanks, minor dams and use of sluices.
  • Animal power was also used for threshing and pounding.
  • In the redistributive economy, cattle and grains were the common gift items though some expensive material gifts could also have been offered to the bards.
  • In some studies, the meanings that cattle raids and plunder acquire in redistribution process of megalithic economy and their relationship with agriculture has been highlighted.
  • Several concepts and terms like vetci (cattle raid), karanti (cattle rearing), vanchi (chieftain’s attack), kanchi (defending the attack) and tumpai (preparing for a raid) attest to the plunder activities.
  • In order to augment their resources, the chieftains of Vanpulam indulged in plunder activities. As compared to resource deprived Vanpulam chieftains, the chieftains of Manpulam owned large paddy fields and were prosperous.
  • The Manpulam sub-regions existed as islands in the larger landscapes of Vanpulam. It would be erroneous to assume that these sub-regions remained isolated and stagnant over time.
  • The interaction between hilly tracts and riverine regions had transforming impact on semi-developed or un-developed eco-zones though the contradiction within economic infrastructure could not be totally done away with.
  • The process of human adaptation was governed by social and environmental limitations.
  • Vanpulams consisted of inhospitable arid and hilly areas besides pastures.
  • Known as enal or punam these abounded in cultivation of millets and grams.
  • As Vanpulams constituted of diverse ecological niches, subsistence economy could not have been uniform.
  • Pastoralists–agriculturists who were engaged in animal husbandry and dry farming also practiced craft production. Similarly in the riverine areas artisanal categories could be supported by surplus generated from plough agriculture.
  • People in Vanpulam depended on Manpulam for a variety of reasons viz., work for artisans, exchanging hill products with wetland agrarian products and marginal sections of Vanpulam society drawing sustenance in one form or other.
  • Some exchange centres, ankaati or avanam are referred to in Tamil anthologies.
  • Poems in Pura Nanru describe the exchange roots passing through inhospitable Vanpulam tracts.
  • The common medium of exchange was paddy and the required commodity was salt.
    • This exchange was necessitated by differential access to resources.
    • Though the degree and volume of foreign trade can be debated, the Tamil region was definitely a part of long distance exchange also.
    • Items obtained from nature including agrarian products were exported from the Tamil land. These included pepper, ginger, cardamom, cloves, aromatics, and wood species like teak and sandal, cotton fabrics and precious and semi–precious stones.

Early State Formations and Agriculture

Early state formations in peninsular India were crucial in shaping agricultural practices and the interaction between different eco-zones. The process of state formation can be divided into three major phases, particularly in the Tamil region:

1. Proto-Historic Period:
   • This phase was characterized by micro-eco-zones governed by clan-based chieftainships.
   • These areas were habitats for proto-historic communities, where agriculture was practiced but not yet organized on a larger scale.
2. Early Historic Period:
   • During this time, macro-eco-zones emerged from the interaction of micro-eco-zones.
   • The Satavahanas, a secondary state, integrated these zones, leading to more organized agricultural practices.
   • The establishment of these states facilitated the development of infrastructure and management systems for agriculture.
3. Pallava Period:
   • This period marked a significant change in agrarian production organization.
   • The Brahmanas, as landowners, played a crucial role in managing agricultural labor and resources.
   • They were more effective than the earlier warring chieftains in organizing production, leading to a developing peasant economy.
   • The Brahmanas received land endowments and enjoyed privileges, which contributed to the stability and growth of agricultural practices.

Overall, the process of state formation was intertwined with agricultural development, as states sought to generate surplus production to support their economies and populations. This led to the integration of various eco-zones and the establishment of agricultural infrastructure, which was essential for sustaining the growing populations and the needs of the state.

Early Medieval Agrarian Developments

Early medieval agrarian developments in peninsular India were marked by significant changes in agricultural practices, infrastructure, and the organization of agrarian societies. Key aspects of these developments include:

Nadus and the Newer Instruments of Agrarian Integration

Nadus were fundamental agrarian units that emerged in early medieval Tamil land, representing micro-regions of peasant settlements. They played a crucial role in the organization and expansion of agriculture during this period. Here are the key aspects of Nadus and the newer instruments of agrarian integration:

1. Definition and Structure:
   • The term “Nadu” literally means cultivable land, but it was generally applied to settlements regardless of their level of agrarian development.
   • Nadus were seen as peasant micro-regions, and their origins can be traced back to the earliest Tamil anthologies.
   • By the eleventh century, many Nadus had emerged, particularly in the Kaveri valley.
2. Ecological Diversity:
   • Different ecological zones had varying access to water resources, which influenced agricultural practices.
   • For instance, riverine regions like the Kaveri delta required flood control mechanisms such as embankments and canals, while drier upland areas relied on tanks and reservoirs for irrigation.
3. Role of Institutions:
   • The emergence of institutions such as Brahmadeyas (land grants) and temples was instrumental in the agrarian expansion associated with Nadus.
   • These institutions facilitated the clearance of forests, construction of irrigation systems, and management of agricultural labor.
   • They helped integrate various agrarian regions and supported the development of agricultural infrastructure.
4. Conflict and Cooperation:
   • The process of agrarian expansion was sometimes accompanied by conflicts between different subsistence strategies, such as pastoralists and shifting cultivators clashing with plough cultivators.
   • However, the interactions among these groups also led to cooperation and the sharing of agricultural practices.
5. Integration of Agrarian Regions:
   • The organization of Nadus allowed for the integration of various agrarian regions, creating a more cohesive agricultural landscape.
   • This integration was essential for managing resources and facilitating agricultural production across different eco-zones.
6. Periya-nadu:
   • By the eleventh century, a supra-local organization of agriculturists known as Periya-nadu emerged in the drier areas north of the Kaveri.
   • This organization played a significant role in managing agricultural activities and resources in peripheral areas.

In summary, Nadus were vital to the agrarian landscape of early medieval Tamil Nadu, serving as units of organization that facilitated agricultural integration and development. The establishment of institutions and the management of resources within these micro-regions contributed to the overall growth of agriculture in the region.

Reclamation, Irrigation and Crop-production

Agrarian expansion in the early medieval period had three important dimensions:

• Horizontal expansion of cultivation through reclamation of diverse pocket, clearance of forests and clearance of forest and establishment of rural settlements;
• Creation of irrigation facilities; and
• Qualitative and quantitative increase in crop production.

Each of these aspects played a significant role in enhancing agricultural productivity and supporting the growing population. Here’s a detailed overview :-

1. Reclamation:
   • Reclamation refers to the process of converting previously uncultivated or marginal lands into arable land suitable for agriculture.
     • This often involved clearing forests, draining wetlands, and improving soil fertility.
   • Methods:
     • The reclamation process included the clearance of forests and the establishment of rural settlements.
     • Peasants often undertook reclamation of virgin or wasteland within settled villages, while larger-scale forest clearance and infrastructure development were typically facilitated by institutions like Brahmadeyas and temples.
   • Historical Examples:
     • The Kadamba dynasty in Goa and the Kakatiya rulers in Andhra Pradesh were known for their efforts in forest clearance and land reclamation, which significantly expanded the cultivable tracts in their regions.
2. Irrigation:
   • Importance:
     • Irrigation was crucial for enhancing agricultural productivity, especially in regions with variable rainfall.
     • The development of irrigation systems allowed for more reliable water supply to crops, which was essential for sustaining agricultural activities.
   • Technological Advancements:
     • The early medieval period saw significant advancements in irrigation technology, including the construction of sluice-weirs and channels to draw water from tanks and rivers.
     • These systems improved water management and increased the area under cultivation.
   • Management:
     • Effective management of irrigation facilities was necessary for maintaining productivity.
     • This included activities such as de-silting tanks, repairing broken sluices, and raising the capacity of water storage.
     • Local bodies and institutions often played a role in managing these irrigation systems.
3. Crop Production:
   • Expansion of Cultivation:
     • The early medieval period witnessed a qualitative and quantitative increase in crop production.
     • This included the extension of cultivation to previously wild or uncultivated products, as well as the introduction of new crops.
   • Diverse Crops:
     • The agricultural landscape became more diverse, with the cultivation of various crops such as millets (e.g., finger millet and jowar), rice, and other garden products.
     • The surplus produce from wet rice cultivation could be utilized for trade or temple-related rituals.
   • Demographic Pressures:
     • As populations grew, there was an increased demand for food, leading to the cultivation of a wider variety of crops and the intensification of agricultural practices.

In summary, reclamation, irrigation, and crop production were integral to the agrarian expansion of the early medieval period. These processes not only enhanced agricultural productivity but also contributed to the socio-economic development of the region, allowing for the support of larger populations and the establishment of more complex agrarian societies.

Geo-polity and Agrarian Expansion

Geo-polity and agrarian expansion refer to the interplay between geographical and political factors that influenced agricultural development in a region, particularly in the context of early medieval India. Here’s a detailed explanation of both concepts:

1. Geo-polity
   • Definition: Geo-polity combines geographical features and political structures to understand how they interact and shape societal developments, including agriculture.
     • It examines how the physical landscape, climate, and resources influence political power and governance.
   • Influence of Geography:
     • The geographical context, such as the availability of water resources, soil fertility, and climate conditions, significantly impacted agricultural practices.
     • For instance, regions with rich riverine plains, like those of the Pandyas and Cholas, had more extensive agricultural activities compared to areas with less favorable conditions.
   • Political Structures:
     • The political organization of dynasties, such as the Hoysala, Kakatiya, Chola, and Pandya, played a crucial role in managing agricultural resources.
     • These dynasties implemented policies that promoted agricultural development, such as land grants, irrigation projects, and the establishment of institutions to support farming communities.
   • Revenue Generation:
     • The geo-political context also influenced the generation of royal revenue through agriculture.
     • Regions with high agricultural productivity could support larger populations and generate surplus, which was essential for the economic stability of the ruling powers.
2. Agrarian Expansion
   • Definition: Agrarian expansion refers to the growth and development of agricultural practices, including the increase in cultivated land, the introduction of new crops, and the improvement of agricultural techniques.
   • Dimensions of Expansion: Agrarian expansion in early medieval India involved several dimensions :-
     • Horizontal Expansion: This included the reclamation of new lands, such as clearing forests and converting wastelands into arable land.
     • Irrigation Development: The construction of irrigation systems, such as tanks and canals, was crucial for enhancing agricultural productivity, especially in regions with variable rainfall.
     • Crop Diversification: There was a qualitative and quantitative increase in crop production, with the introduction of new crops and the expansion of existing agricultural practices.
   • Role of Institutions:
     • Institutions like Brahmadeyas (land grants) and temples played a significant role in facilitating agrarian expansion.
     • They supported the construction of irrigation infrastructure, managed agricultural labor, and promoted the integration of various agrarian regions.
   • Impact on Society:
     • Agrarian expansion led to the growth of rural settlements, increased trade, and the establishment of complex social structures.
     • It also contributed to demographic changes, as more people settled in agricultural areas, leading to the development of a peasant economy.

In summary, geo-polity and agrarian expansion are interconnected concepts that highlight how geographical and political factors influenced agricultural development in early medieval India. The effective management of agricultural resources by political authorities, combined with favorable geographical conditions, facilitated significant agrarian growth, shaping the socio-economic landscape of the region.

Eco-zones: Phased Opening of Agrarian Frontiers

Eco-zones refer to distinct ecological regions characterized by specific environmental conditions, such as climate, soil type, and vegetation, which influence agricultural practices and settlement patterns. The concept of “phased opening of agrarian frontiers” describes the gradual process through which these eco-zones were developed and integrated into agricultural systems over time. Here’s a detailed explanation:

1. Eco-zones
   • Eco-zones are geographical areas that share similar ecological characteristics, including climate, topography, and biodiversity.
     • These zones can significantly affect agricultural potential and the types of crops that can be cultivated.
   • Examples in India:
     • In the context of early medieval India, eco-zones included regions like the fertile river valleys, coastal plains, and hilly terrains.
     • Each of these zones had unique agricultural practices suited to their environmental conditions.
     • For instance, the Krishna-Godavari delta was known for its paddy cultivation, while the Deccan plateau had a different set of crops suited to its soil and climate.
2. Phased Opening of Agrarian Frontiers
   • Concept: The phased opening of agrarian frontiers refers to the systematic and gradual expansion of agricultural activities into new eco-zones.
     • This process involved the reclamation of land, development of irrigation systems, and adaptation of agricultural practices to suit different environmental conditions.
   • Stages of Expansion:
     • Initial Settlement: Early agricultural activities often began in areas with favorable conditions, such as river valleys and plains. These regions were typically the first to be cultivated due to their rich soil and reliable water supply.
     • Reclamation of Marginal Lands: As populations grew and agricultural demand increased, communities began to reclaim less fertile or marginal lands, such as forested areas or hilly terrains. This reclamation was often facilitated by advancements in agricultural techniques and irrigation.
     • Integration of Diverse Eco-zones: Over time, different eco-zones were integrated into a broader agrarian economy. This integration involved the exchange of agricultural knowledge and practices between regions, leading to a more diverse agricultural landscape.
   • Factors Influencing Phased Opening:
     • Environmental Conditions: The suitability of land for agriculture, including soil fertility and water availability, played a crucial role in determining which eco-zones were opened for cultivation.
     • Political and Social Structures: The role of local rulers, institutions, and community organizations was vital in managing land reclamation and irrigation projects. For example, the Kakatiya rulers promoted agriculture in regions like Telangana through the construction of tanks and irrigation systems.
     • Technological Advancements: Innovations in agricultural tools and irrigation techniques facilitated the expansion into new eco-zones, allowing for more efficient farming practices.
   • Impact on Society:
     • The phased opening of agrarian frontiers led to the establishment of new settlements, increased agricultural productivity, and the development of trade networks.
     • It also contributed to demographic changes, as more people moved into newly cultivated areas, leading to the growth of rural communities.

In summary, eco-zones and the phased opening of agrarian frontiers highlight the dynamic relationship between environmental conditions and agricultural development. The gradual integration of diverse eco-zones into the agrarian economy was a complex process influenced by ecological, political, and technological factors, ultimately shaping the agricultural landscape of early medieval India.

Diffusion of River Valley Civilisation in India

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Indus Valley Civilisation

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was one of the world’s earliest urban societies, existing from around 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, with its mature phase between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE. The civilization covered a vast area, larger than contemporary civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia, with a highly developed urban culture characterized by advanced urban planning, extensive trade, and agricultural prowess.

Historical Overview

• Origins and Development
  • The civilization emerged in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, flourishing in the fertile plains of the Indus River and its tributaries.
  • It evolved from earlier village cultures like the Ravi and Kot Diji phases, with gradual advancements in agriculture, trade, and urban planning.
• Cultural Aspects
  • The IVC is noted for its non-hierarchical social structure compared to other ancient civilizations.
  • There is no clear evidence of monumental palaces or temples, suggesting a relatively egalitarian society, possibly with a focus on community welfare.
• Technology and Artifacts
  • They developed standardized weights and measures, advanced metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin), and produced a variety of crafts, including pottery, beadwork, and seal carving.
  • The undeciphered Indus script, typically found on seals, suggests a complex communication system, though the exact nature of their language and administrative structure remains unclear.

Geographical Spread

• Extent:
  • The civilization spanned a vast region of approximately 1.25 million square kilometers, covering parts of modern-day Pakistan, northwest India, and eastern Afghanistan.
  • Major rivers, including the Indus, Ghaggar-Hakra (believed to be the ancient Saraswati), and their tributaries, provided the necessary water resources for agriculture and trade.
• Climate and Environment:
  • The region had a favorable climate for agriculture, with a mix of riverine plains and semi-arid conditions.
  • The monsoon season played a crucial role in farming cycles, although the IVC also developed irrigation techniques to manage water resources effectively.

Agricultural Practices

• Crops:
  • The economy of the IVC was primarily agrarian, with key crops including wheat, barley, peas, lentils, chickpeas, and sesame.
  • They were among the first to cultivate cotton, which they used to produce textiles.
  • Evidence of rice cultivation is found at later sites, though it was not as prominent as other staples.
• Techniques:
  • The civilization employed advanced farming techniques, such as plowing fields, irrigation, and possibly crop rotation.
  • Tools made from copper and stone were used for plowing and harvesting.
  • The use of granaries suggests systematic storage and distribution of surplus food.
• Domestication of Animals:
  • The people of the IVC domesticated various animals, including cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and camels, which were integral to their agricultural economy.
  • There is also evidence of the domestication of elephants, which may have been used in trade or agricultural activities.

Urban Planning and Architecture

• The cities were laid out in a grid pattern with streets that intersected at right angles.
• The civilization had sophisticated drainage and sewage systems, which were more advanced than those found in many places today.
• Buildings were constructed with uniformly sized bricks, and there were public baths, granaries, and docks.

Religion and Social Structure

• The civilization likely had a polytheistic belief system, with possible worship of a Mother Goddess and other deities linked to nature.
• There is evidence of animal worship and reverence for trees and natural features, which some scholars believe influenced later Hindu practices.
• Society was likely stratified, but there is no clear evidence of temples or palaces, suggesting a more egalitarian structure compared to other ancient societies.

Decline

• The reasons for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization are still debated, with theories ranging from climate change, river course shifts, and overuse of resources to invasions or internal decline.

Main Excavated Sites

The Indus Valley Civilization represents a remarkable example of early urban development, with a strong emphasis on agriculture supported by advanced irrigation and water management systems. Its strategic geographical spread across fertile river valleys and semi-arid regions allowed it to thrive for several centuries, leaving behind a legacy that continues to intrigue historians and archaeologists today.