This notes (Capitalist Industrialization) tells us about the transition from Feudalism to capitalism in Europe and afterwards situation…..

Downfall of Feudalism in Europe

Factors that led to the downfall of Feudalism in Europe

Or

Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism in Europe

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After the fall of the great Roman Empire in the 5th century, many small feudal states emerged in Europe. The feudal system became the main feature of medieval civilization. The political, social, economic and religious systems of the medieval era (especially in Europe) were based on ‘feudalism’.

‘Feudalism’ was a system of social organization under which the rights and duties of each person were determined on the basis of his rights over land.

According to Webster, “Feudalism was a system in which the local rulers used those powers which were available to the king, emperor or any central power. Under this practice, the king used to divide the land under his control among his brave soldiers and other loyal chieftains. The soldiers and chieftains became the owners of the acquired land. They used to get the farmers to cultivate the land and collect taxes from them as per their wish.”

It was a pyramid-shaped organization with the king at the top and the agricultural slaves at the bottom. In the middle were both the master and the servant. In fact, this was the human system in which the weak person used to serve the powerful person and in return wished for his protection.

Hayes and Moon have described it as a system of mutual security, “Feudalism served as a mutual insurance society in a great danger.” – Hayes and Moon. This system continued till the 14th century, although gradually technological changes did bring some changes in this system. Along with feudalism, religion also had an important influence on human life. Society was bound by superstitions and religious bonds.

Let us read about the factors that led to the decline of Feudalism in Europe :-

Political Causes

1. Centralization of Powers
   • As monarchies grew stronger and consolidated their authority, they sought to centralize power with their realms.
   • Kings and monarchs began to assert greater control over their territories, weakening authority of feudal lords and reducing their independence.
2. Changing Warfare and Military Technology
   • The advent of new military technologies such as longbow and gunpowder and changes in warfare tactics undermined the military dominance of the feudal knights.
   • This shift reduced the reliance on feudal lords for military strength.
3. Rise of National States
   • The feudal system arose due to weakening power of the kings but the invention of guns and gunpowder increased the power of the kings, with this kings formed new trained infantry using guns.
   • The armies destroyed the powerful forts of the feudal lords by using gun powders. And in this way, powerful kingdoms emerged in Europe.
   • By the end of 14th century, national kingdoms such as Spain, France, England, Russia, Portugal, Norway etc, emerged. The national sentiment first developed as a result of Hundred Year’s war between France and England. But as a result of this war, national sentiment was born in the whole of Europe over the time.
   • Similarly, the long struggle (1455-85AD) between the opposing parties to establish control over the crown ended the feudal system in England. This war is famous in history as the “War of Roses.”
4. Mutual fightings of feudal lords
   • Mutual fightings of feudal lords also became a big reason for the downfall of feudalism.
   • Feudal lords had large estates and to rule these estates, they had huge armies.
   • There were many fightings among them over these estates which increased their mutual jealousy. They often fought to show their inferiority.
   • Due to such fights among the feudal lords, their military powers got weakened. Such fights were notable in France and England.
5. Rise of trading class
   • During the heyday of feudalism, the trade between Eastern countries and Western countries had almost stopped. As a result, the local trade also suffered. But due to the crusades, the traders of Europe came in contact with traders of western countries and started trading.
   • The demand for goods of the East increased in Europe and as a result of which the merchant class emerged. As the trade sector progressed, the merchant class became richer than feudal lords.
   • Despite being economically rich, the merchants did not have an important position from the social and administrative pov. Therefore, they started getting jealous of the feudal lords.
   • And thus, they started giving financial assistance to the rulers so that the power of the feudal lords could be crushed.
   • Trade got a boost due to the law and order established by the powerful armies, which strengthened the capitalist system.
6. Development of the towns
   • In the 13th century, trade fairs were held every year at the important places in Europe.
   • In these fairs, the traders of Northern Europe brought their goods like grains, cloth, woods, iron, salt, wool etc. and in return they took spices, wine, gold, silver etc. from the traders of Southern Europe.
   • Gradually, these fairs developed and started running throughout the year.
   • In 15th century, these fairs took the place of cities and thus, the development of trade and commerce gave birth to the new towns and cities in Europe.
   • With the development of trade and commerce, the demand for goods increased as a result of which production started on large scale and large industries developed and started coming up in these cities of Europe.
7. Rise of Bourgeoisie
   • Geographical discoveries, development of trade and commerce and circulation of currency led to the rise of bourgeoisie (middle class).
   • The word ‘Bourgeoisie’ is derived from the word “Burj” which means city dwellers. Hence, this class comprises of traders, moneylenders and businessmen living in cities.
   • Their main source of income was trade for which they received money in cash.
   • When this class started gettings support of the kings, the feudal lords started getting jealous of them.
   • The kings also started appointing people of this class to important administrative posts.
8. Renaissance and Reformation
   • The renaissance and reformation movements weakened feudalism and took out the world from medieval system and moved it towards the modernity.
   • Renaissance was a liberal cultural movement which brought great changes in science, business, religion and governance.
     • It freed the individual from the shackles of medieval superstitions, orthodoxies and church and religious theology and provided them an opportunity to think freely and develop their personality.
     • It created a new culture on the basis of ancient Greek and Roman culture.
   • Like Renaissance, Reformation also played an important role in bringing modernity by ending the medieval religious orthodoxy.
     • In medieval period, the church had a deep influence on all areas of society.
     • The church was a symbol of traditional beliefs and devotion of christianity.
     • It was considered a symbol of religious rites and moral standards.
     • And due to this, the people’s deep faith in church helped the church authorities to became powerful.
     • As a result, the officials of the church (Pope, Archbishop, Bishop, Priest) became morally corrupt. The luxurious, immoral and corrupt life of the officials made people oppose the church and gradually voices started rising against the Pope and high-ranking priests.
     • In the beginning, the opposing voices were suppressed strictly. But finally Martin Luther of Germany opposed the Pope and established new principles which were called Protestant religion. These principles supported the dignity and freedom of the individual and as a result, modern values ​​like individualism, freedom, religious tolerance, secularism were established.

Social and Economic Causes

1. Peasant Revolts
   • The discontent and grievances of the peasant class eventually led to uprisings and revolts against feudal oppression.
   • The most notable examples include English Peasants Revolt in 1381 and Jacquerie in France in 1358.
   • These revolts were driven by social and economic injustices and contributed to the erosion of feudalism by challenging the authority of the nobility.
   • Though these revolts were not successful, they definitely weakened the power of the feudal lords.
2. Black Death
   • The devastating impact of the Black death, a deadly pandemic that swept across Europe in the 14th century had profound consequences for feudalism.
   • The widespread loss of life resulted in labour shortages, giving peasants more leverage to negotiate better conditions and seek opportunities outside the manorial system.
   • The weakened labour supply led to a decline in economic power of feudal lords.
3. Crusades
   • Crusades were wars fought between Christians and Muslims from 1095AD to 1453AD for the possession of Jerusalem, the holy pilgrimage place of Christianity.
   • As many feudal lords participated in these crusades along with their peasant slaves and a large number of them died in these wars and the pope kept his promise to free the serfs who had returned and freed them.
   • Thus, power of feudal lords was severely affected when the serfs were given freedom.
   • Also due to the death of many peasant slaves, the number of farmers decreased and as a result the economic conditions of feudal lords deteriorated.
   • The power of such weak feudal lords was ended by the emperors.
4. Currency System
   • During feudalism, barter system was in vogue.
   • Mainly grain was the main medium of exchange.
   • With the development of trade and commerce, metal coins came into use and gradually, gold, silver and copper coins became the medium of exchange in all countries.
   • Kings now started demanding taxes from feudal lords in cash instead of grains. Further, feudal lords also started collecting taxes in cash or coins from their subordinate farmers and peasant slaves.
   • With this, kings also started paying cash salary to the army instead of jagirs and keeping a permanent army by paying it. And with this, kings were no longer dependent on feudal lords for any military assisstance.
   • The banking system also developed due to circulation of the money. Now traders could keep their dividends safe in banks and take loans.
   • Thus, with this circulation of money, the development of trade and commerce, rise of cities and capitalist system started developing and the feudal structure started breaking down.

Geographical and Scientific Discoveries

Geographical Discoveries:

• Geographical discoveries played an important role in the fall of feudalism and the rise of the modern era.
• As a result of the victory of the Turks over Constantinople in 1453 AD, the Turks now gained control over the land route from Europe to the eastern countries.
• The Turks used to rob the traders, as a result of which Europe’s trade with the eastern countries came to a halt, but there was a tremendous demand for the goods and hot spices of the eastern countries in the European cities.
• Therefore, the Europeans started trying to discover the water routes to the eastern countries.
• At the same time, scientists in Europe discovered the compass and the map, which made sea travel easier. As a result of all this, courageous sailors and traders of Portugal, Spain, Denmark, Holland, England etc. discovered important land areas of America, Africa and Asia.
• As a result of these geographical discoveries, Europe came in contact with new land areas of the world, which developed their trade and commerce, which strengthened the capitalist system.
• With the development of capitalist organization, the roots of feudal organization started becoming hollow.

Scientific Discoveries:

• Scientific discoveries played the most important role in the downfall of feudalism and the rise of the modern era.
• In the second century, Egyptian scientist Ptolemy propounded the view that the earth is situated in the middle of the universe and is the centre of the entire world. The sun, moon, stars and other planets revolve around the earth.
• The Christian church also believed this theory to be true and people believed this theory for centuries, but the Polish scientist Copernicus surprised people by proving this theory to be false.
• Although the church considered this theory to be against religion and severely criticized it. Copernicus had to stop his ideas on the orders of the Pope.
• Similarly, when the Italian scientist Gianni Bruno propagated the theory again, he was murdered on the orders of the Pope.
• Later, German scientist Kepler confirmed the principles of Copernicus and laid the foundation of modern mathematics and science, as a result of which people’s faith in superstitions started to waver.
• Before this, the English scientist Roger Bacon had laid the foundation of modern science.
• In the 16th century, Italian scientist Galileo made a telescope with the help of which ships fifty miles away could be seen clearly.
  • He also invented the principle of pendulum which proved that the speed of falling bodies does not depend on their weight but on the distance from where they fall.
  • Galileo also discovered the laws of pendulum.
• French mathematicians Descartes, Tartaglio and Professor Newton of Cambridge University of England took scientific progress forward by giving the laws of motion and the law of gravity.
• As a result of scientific discoveries, people’s outlook became rational and they came out of the superstitious beliefs of religion and became materialists. The materialist system (capitalism) ended feudalism.

Role of technology in the process of Capitalist Industrialization

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Technology has played a crucial role in the process of capitalist industrialization by driving efficiency, productivity, and economic growth. Here are some key points highlighting its role:

1. Increased Productivity: The introduction of machinery and technological innovations, such as the steam engine and mechanized looms, significantly boosted the productivity of industries. This allowed for mass production of goods at a much faster rate than traditional manual labor.
2. Lower Costs: Technological advancements reduced the costs of production by automating processes and reducing the reliance on skilled labor. This led to cheaper goods and increased profits for industrialists, reinforcing the capitalist system.
3. Expansion of Markets: Improved transportation technologies, like railways and steamships, enabled the expansion of markets by making it easier to move goods over long distances. This facilitated global trade and the growth of capitalist economies.
4. Labor Displacement and Reorganization: Technology shifted labor from manual, artisanal work to factory-based production, reorganizing the labor market and creating a new class of industrial workers. While this led to job losses in some traditional sectors, it also generated new employment opportunities in emerging industries.
5. Innovation and Competition: In a capitalist framework, technology drives competition by enabling firms to innovate and offer better or cheaper products. This competition pushes continual technological advancement as companies strive to outdo each other.
6. Capital Accumulation: The efficiencies and increased outputs brought about by technology allowed capitalists to accumulate wealth rapidly, which they reinvested into further technological advancements, fueling a cycle of growth.
7. Development of Trade and Commerce
8. Income generation
9. Rise of Bourgeoisie

Overall, technology was a cornerstone of capitalist industrialization, shaping the economic landscape and enabling the rise of industrial capitalism.

Enlightenment

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The advent of the Age of Enlightenment in Europe was the result of many reasons. It took many centuries for this era to arrive. Many changes took place in the thinking of the 18th century due to scientific revolutions. During this period, a different and new perspective developed at the ideological level in Europe. This perspective was based on secularism, experiential knowledge, mechanical universe, deism, human welfare, beauty of nature etc. The period consisting of all these qualities is called the Management Age.

Logic, tolerance and humanity were the main slogans of the thinkers of this period. In this period, due to the promotion of science and logic in the thoughts and thinking of the common people, there was so much change that it was also addressed as ‘Intellectual Revolution‘. The ideas developed during this period were theoretically different, but there were many similarities in their practical form.

The mechanized nature of the world has been accepted by almost all thinkers. These thinkers had firmly established the theory that “the world works under a natural law“. According to these thinkers, “once nature is created, it is not run by any unknown power, but it is governed by natural laws.” Therefore, these thinkers have suggested that man should not interfere in the laws of nature. Rather he should follow the laws of nature, this is in his best interest. These thinkers have suggested that man should not interfere in the laws of nature. The significance of his suggestion can be understood very well in today’s era.

With the help of intelligence and logic, every person has equal place and equal importance in the society according to the rules of nature. The style of literature of this era was also analytical. The entire literature is full of idealistic thoughts and facts related to them. The literature of this period played an important role in awakening the society, developing it, bringing freshness in thoughts and awakening self-respect.

According to historian Hazen, “The literature of this period had sparkle, passion, satire, but at the same time, it was full of criticism and criticism.” There was an immense confidence that man and his institutions have infinite power to become perfect.

Thinkers of the Enlightenment Age

Many such thinkers were born in the Enlightenment Age, who played an important role in changing the thinking of humans with their thoughts. Brief information about these thinkers can be given as follows –

1. Montesquieu:
   • Montesquieu is known as a famous French thinker, philosopher and historian.
   • ‘The Spirit of Laws’ and ‘Persian Letters’ are his two important and famous works.
   • He supported constitutional monarchy rather than the divine principles of the king.
   • The three organs of governance (executive, judiciary and legislature) were also his thinking.
   • He firmly believed that division of powers is very important for smooth running of governance.
   • He gained immense popularity due to the principle of ‘separation of powers‘.
   • He thought that division of power would automatically end many evils.
   • He believed that by dividing the powers of authority among the ruling class as well as the clergy and the elite class, separation of powers, checks and balances would automatically be established.
2. Pere Bailly:
   • Like Montesquieu, another great philosopher of France was Pere Bailly.
   • His works are full of facts and arguments.
   • He is the first to logically say that the comet is also like other stars. This created a lot of awareness among the people and their superstitions related to this star decreased to a great extent.
   • ‘What Holy Catholic France Under the Regime of Louis Fourteen Really Is’ was published in 1688 AD, in which he clearly said that religion is a personal matter of the individual and he has the right to choose it himself. No one should interfere in the matter of a person’s religion.
   • In the work named ‘Historical and Critical Dictionary’ which was published in 1697 AD, he has made a detailed analysis of the works and lives of historians, theologians and philosophers.
3. Voltaire:
   • Like Montesquieu and Pere Bailly, Voltaire also gained a lot of popularity in France in the 18th century.
   • He was a great philosopher, dramatist, critic, poet and journalist.
   • His 4 major works were
     • ‘Dictionary on Tolerance’,
     • ‘Era of the 14th Century’,
     • ‘Letters on English’ and
     • ‘Indies’.
   • Voltaire considered Newton to be greater than Caesar and Alexander.
   • He had said in his words, “He deserves our respect who impresses our mind with truth. We should respect only that person who understands the world, not corrupts it.”
   • He was the biggest supporter of personal freedom and natural rights of man.
   • He believed that laws should be made in such a language that the people living there can easily understand.
4. Rousseau:
   • Rousseau wrote a book called ‘Social Contract’ in 1762 AD.
   • Rousseau was the most enlightened philosopher of France in the 18th century.
   • Apart from ‘Social Contract’, ‘The Eagle’ and ‘Discourse on Science and Authors‘ were his great works.
   • Rousseau was such a thinker whose ideas were adopted by his followers.
   • Rousseau’s principles of equality, freedom and fraternity have been included in many charters of many international peace organizations of the world.
   • Rousseau is called the pioneer of the French Revolution.
   • Nationalism and democracy were initiated in his political philosophy.
   • He was the first thinker to influence the modern world who said, “Man is born free.”
5. Diderot:
   • He was also a great philosopher of France.
   • Diderot, with the help of his colleagues, prepared an encyclopedia in which slave trade, religious intolerance, religious superstitions, corrupt life of priests, unfair taxes and privileges of the church were logically challenged.
   • This book spread rationalism in the society of that time.
   • Diderot especially influenced the thinking of the middle class.
6. John Locke:
   • Although John Locke is not considered an original thinker, he brought about a revolutionary change in the thoughts of his predecessors and established such practical principles which are considered to be the characteristics of modern states and society.
   • The future thinkers, rather than criticizing his ideas, provided them a strong basis.
   • According to Laski, “Locke was actually the first English thinker whose ideas were based on secularism. Rousseau’s philosophy was nothing more than an extension of Locke’s philosophy.”

Effects of Enlightenment

The effect of Enlightenment can be clearly seen on every sphere of society. The effect of the ideas of the Enlightenment era can be understood as follows –

1. Influenced by the ideas of this era, many rulers of the 18th century tried to mold their rule in accordance with these new ideas.
2. It was the effect of the intellectual and logical ideas of this era that in this era, instead of divine monarchy, liberal, philanthropic, enlightened and for the welfare of the general public monarchy was established.
3. The autocratic, willful, selfish, cruel and oppressive rulers now started getting challenges from the people. All this was the result of the Enlightenment era. It was the intellectual consciousness that generated so much courage in them (people).
4. Due to new logical ideas in this era, an attempt was started to emotionally understand the painful condition of farmers, laborers and slaves.
5. The doors of education opened for the people, literature developed, laws were clarified and public works increased.
6. The common people got inspiration and strength from new logical ideas. Now they started getting ready to face social inequality, exploitation and oppression.
7. Due to these ideas, the press developed. As a result of this development, newspapers and magazines started getting printed in large numbers. People made the press a weapon to solve their problems.
8. Now the state started being considered as an instrument of progress, whether its form was monarchy or democracy. In any form of the state, the matter of public welfare became important.

Scientific Progress in Renaissance

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During the Renaissance period, there was a remarkable progress in the field of science, for which the following reasons were responsible –

1. The emergence of thinking completely independent of religious control.
2. The outline of thinking about the future by philosophers.
3. Development of intelligence.
4. The rise of nation states.
5. The encouragement of scientific thinking due to social order.
6. Giving importance to logic for solving problems.

As Francis Bacon said that “knowledge can be acquired only by observation and experimentation.”

Short History of Scientific Progress

• Greek astronomer Ptolemy proved that, “The earth is situated at the centre of the universe.”
  • In the sixteenth century, Polish scientist Copernicus refuted this idea and proved that ‘the earth is a satellite and it revolves around the sun.’
  • Italian scientist Buono also supported this. This new theory was not in accordance with the Bible.
  • Therefore, the religious leaders of Rome burnt Buono alive.
• German astronomer John Kaplan confirmed Copernicus’s theories on the basis of evidence and told that the planets revolve around the sun in orbit.
  • Galileo also supported these ideas due to which he had to face the wrath of the church.
• England’s great scientist and mathematician Isaac Newton propounded the law of gravity.
  • According to this law, every object falls towards the earth due to the gravitational force of the earth.
  • Newton’s discovery dispelled the superstitions of people to a great extent. This theory also influenced astronomy.
• Vesalius of Netherlands did a deep study of medicine and surgery.
  • Vesalius wrote a book named ‘Structure of Human Body’.
  • In this book, details of all the organs of the body were presented.
• ‘William Harvey’ of England propounded the ‘blood circulation’ theory.
  • As a result of this theory, the study of health and disease problems began in a new way.
  • Galileo invented the ‘Principle of Pendulum’ due to which the making of clocks became possible.
  • He also invented the barometer.
• French mathematician Descartes explained how algebra can be used in geometry. He gave birth to skepticism in science, which greatly helped in the progress of science.
• Unprecedented progress was also made in the field of medicine, chemistry and mathematics during this period.
  • The need for metal paved the way for digging mines.
  • As the mines were deep, pumps and drilling equipment also became necessary.
  • Thereafter, theories related to crushing metals were formulated. For the first time, a mixture of metals was used in medicines.
• A scientist named Paracelsus established a close relationship between chemistry and medicine. Helmont discovered carbon dioxide gas.

Progress in technical field

• New technique in the field of agriculture
  • Jethro Tull invented a machine called ‘dill’ for sowing seeds. With this machine, seeds can be sown in fixed rows.
  • In 1793, Britain succeeded in making a machine that separated grains from straw.
  • In 1834, McCormick made a harvesting machine.
  • Apart from the above inventions, the use of horse-drawn threshing floor, iron plough and disc harrow also started in this period. The invention of power-driven machines brought about a revolution in the field of agriculture. As a result of the changes in agriculture, there was a considerable increase in agricultural production between 1760 and 1860.
• New technique in the field of Industries
  • In 1733, a weaver named John K. invented the flying shuttle. This made weaving of cloth quick.
  • In 1764, James Hargreaves succeeded in making the ‘Spinning Jenny’. With this, eight threads of yarn could be spun simultaneously.
  • In 1769, Richard Arkwright modified the Spinning Jenny and made a spinning machine called ‘Water Frame’ which ran on water power.
  • In 1769, Samuel Crompton succeeded in making a machine by combining the Spinning Jenny and Water Frame, which was called ‘Mule’. Fine yarn can be spun with this machine.
  • In 1785, Edmund Cartwright invented the power-driven ‘loom’. It can be run by both water power and steam power.
  • In 1793, Eli Ditney made a machine for ginning cotton. This machine was called ‘cotton gin’.
  • In 1825, Richard Roberts invented the automatic weaving machine.
  • In 1846, Elias Howe succeeded in making a sewing machine.
• New Techniques in the Field of Transportation
  • To build more useful and durable roads, Macadam discovered a new method of road construction. He laid a layer of heavy stones in the lower part of the road, then small stones and finally a sheet of tar.
  • The technology of canal construction was developed only in the second half of the eighteenth century.
  • In 1807, the sea-going steam boat ‘Sirius’ succeeded in crossing the Atlantic Ocean in eighteen days.
  • In 1814, George Stephenson invented the famous steam engine ‘Rocket’. It could pull a vehicle on iron tracks. As a result, the first train ran in 1830.
  • As a result of the invention of the petrol engine in 1860, motor manufacturing factories were established in America, France, Germany and England.
• New Technique in the Field of Communication
  • The credit for improving the means of communication goes to Charles Wheatstone and his colleagues Samuel Morse and Alfred Bell. They created the electric telegraph. In 1866, the first message was sent across the ocean through the efforts of Charles Bright and Cyrus Field. Philip Reis of Germany invented the telephone. During these days, the following technical changes took place in the field of communication-
  • In 1844, Samuel Morse invented a practical telegraph, through which continents could be connected to each other.
  • In 1876, Graham brought about a revolutionary change in the field of communication by inventing the telephone.
  • Thus, the above-mentioned inventions and technical changes made the industrial revolution possible.

Capitalism

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In capitalism, Capital is the main focus. Normally, Capitalism is that economy which uses Capital. It is operated by an individual or group of individuals. In it, the individual or group of Individuals those who have enough money, starts a business in a large scale. With this money, they buy raw materials, oils or tools and employ a large number of workers. Their only aim is to gain profit and not welfare of Country or people. In it, the labourers have nothing and they work only for wages.

Characteristics and Features of Capitalism

• Private Property:
• Legacy
• Freedom of Trade
• Objective of Production – Profit
• Large Scale Production
• Competition
• Role of Market
• Unequal distribution of Income and Wealth