This notes (Environment and Early Society) contains about the environment and its history with the human and early humans.

Environment and Early Society

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Human race (Homo sapiens) emerged more than 25 lakh years ago. Due to their highly developed brain, they had the ability to think and use their own decisions. Humans started walking standing straight on two legs due to which their hands became free to perform their physical functions.

Like other animals, humans were also completely dependent on the environment for food to sustain their lives. Being intelligent, humans started searching for environmental resources not only for food but also to do other tasks. In the last few centuries, exploitation of the environment has increased so dramatically that the danger of serious destruction and disintegration of the environment has increased. Here, along with learning about the use and exploitation of natural resources, we will also know how they are being overexploited.

Availability of natural resources in the environment

Primitive man was dependent on the environment for his survival. When man became more civilized, he used environmental resources to make his life comfortable and used them in different ways to protect himself from various environmental threats.

1. Abiotic resources – Abiotic resources are actually the physical resources of nature which are described below –
   • Land –
     • Various organisms including humans live on the earth.
     • About 29% of the earth’s surface is land which includes mountains, rocks, deserts, swamps, forests and grasslands.
     • Humans use land to grow crops which provide them food.
     • They also need land to build houses, roads and cattle sheds.
     • To meet the needs of the increasing population, land is also needed for urbanisation and industrialisation, construction of dams, flyovers, underground passages and factories.
     • Land resources are depleting at a rapid pace.
   • Water –
     • Natural water sources include oceans and seas and surface water sources such as rivers, lakes, springs and ponds etc.
     • About 80% of the fresh water found on earth is stored as ice at high latitudes and on mountain peaks.
     • Only 20% is available in liquid state.
     • The primary source of water on earth is rainfall.
     • Water is very important for all living beings. We need water –
       1. Used in agriculture for irrigation of crops,
       2. in Industries
       3. in construction of buildings,
       4. in culture of fish, shrimp, aquatic plants (aquaculture) and
       5. for drinking, bathing, cleaning, gardening, pottery making etc.
     • Although water is a natural resource that never gets exhausted, its excessive use and wastage of water indicates its scarcity.
   • Energy –
     • The primary source of energy is solar radiation.
     • Early man used fuel and dung and animal waste for heating and cooking.
     • He used oil extracted from seeds and fish to light his caves and huts.
     • Another major source of energy is coal.
     • As we all know, coal is formed from vegetation found millions of years ago that fell into sediments and got buried in it. Due to extreme pressure and intense heat over the years, these trees and other vegetation got buried in the sediments and turned into coal.
     • Coal is used for cooking, running engines, furnaces in industries and for generating electricity.
     • Coal is also used for extracting metals and minerals.
     • Coal is also used for producing thermal energy.
     • Energy is also obtained from other sources, such as the sun (solar energy), wind (wind energy), animal waste (biogas), the sea (tidal energy) and radioactive minerals (nuclear energy).
   • Petroleum and Natural Gas –
     • Both of these are also fossil fuels.
     • Petroleum is probably formed from aquatic organisms that lived during the past geological period, just as coal was formed from plants.
     • Petroleum and natural gas are obtained from the deep interior of the earth and these sources of energy are non-renewable i.e. they cannot be regenerated.
     • Petroleum products are used to run vehicles, steamers, airplanes and to make plastics and fertilizers. Petrol and diesel are refined petroleum products.
     • Nowadays, CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) is also being used to run vehicles and is considered a clean fuel.
     • Natural gas and diesel are used in power generation.
     • LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is brought through cylinders or pipelines and is used as cooking fuel.
     • Petroleum is also called mineral oil. Like petroleum, natural gas is also a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons.
   • Mineral ore or minerals –
     • Mineral ores are chemical compounds of metals such as aluminium, iron, copper, zinc, manganese etc.
     • All these ores are found in the form of accumulated deposits in the earth.
     • Aluminium is used to make utensils, various parts of vehicles, airplanes and spaceships.
     • Iron and its alloys are used to make weapons, heavy machinery, railway engines, railway tracks and other items.
     • Copper is used to make industrial utensils, electric wires as well as in the electronic and telecommunication industries. Copper is also found in alloys such as brass and bronze.
     • All metal ores are available in limited quantities and due to excessive mining, these metal ores are getting depleted very quickly.
     • Precious metals such as silver, gold and platinum are also found among us, which man considers a precious treasure.
2. Biotic Resources (Living Natural Resources) – Biotic resources include plants, animals and microorganisms.
   • Plants –
     • Natural food sources in human diet include various types of cereals, pulses, vegetables and fruits.
     • Humans grow plants to obtain good quality cereals, pulses, spices, vegetables, fruits, sugar and oil.
     • By growing fibre providing plants, humans get cotton, jute and hemp etc.
     • Various varieties of flowers are grown for ornamental purposes.
     • Some plants have medicinal properties due to which their use is unforgettable.
     • Industrial raw materials, such as rubber, resin, wood are unique plant products.
   • Animals –
     • Goats, fish, eggs, chickens, prawns and crabs etc. are various sources of human food.
     • Animals like horses, bullocks, elephants, cattle, camels, mules, yaks etc. are used as draft animals for transportation.
     • Yaks and sheep provide wool for woollen clothes.
     • Silkworms are reared to obtain silk.
   • Microorganisms –
     • Microorganisms provide antibiotics.
     • They have been used since ancient times for fermentation and wine making.
     • Microorganisms also play a key role in the decomposition of wastes and dead plants and animals.

Interrelationship between primitive society and environment

Humans have been living on this earth for more than 2 lakh years. The records of primitive man and his many activities are buried in the rocks along with their fossils. The fossil records not only show the various stages of human evolution but also give information about the lifestyle and behaviour of primitive man.

1. Story of Human Evolution –
   • When human evolution started, forests started decreasing.
   • Till date, most of the land is covered by forests.
   • The closest ancestors of apes and humans came down from the trees where they lived. They all used to walk on the ground using all four limbs.
   • Modern molecular studies show that the evolution of apes (chimpanzees, gorillas, gibbons and orangutans) from the closest ancestors and then humans took place about 6 lakh years ago.
   • The earliest human ancestors, the Australopithecines who walked upright, evolved in South Africa about 3.5 lakh years ago. They made their tools from a variety of materials.
   • Homo habilis probably evolved from Australopithecines about 2 lakh years ago. These human ancestors had long arms like apes but their brain was much bigger than that of apes.
   • Their next stage was Homo erectus which lived about 1.5 to 2 lakh years ago. Their fossils have been found in China (Peking Man), Java (Java Man), Germany (Heidelberg Man). From this it is known that they evolved in Africa, but later they settled in Asia and Europe. The size of their brain was between the brain of apes and humans. Like apes, they also had large protrusions above their eyes. Homo erectus made stone axes.
   • Neanderthal Man (Homo sapiens neandertalensis) who evolved after Homo erectus belonged to the same species to which modern human Homo sapiens belongs. Remains of Neanderthal man are found in Europe, Asia and Africa. They made a wide variety of good tools and were very good hunters.
   • For about 35000 years, Homo sapiens or modern man has been the only surviving human species (Homo belongs to the family Homilidae, sapiens is intelligent).
2. Primitive Man as Hunter-Gatherer and Nomad –
   • Primitive man lived near forests, water sources like rivers and lakes on the fringes of forests.
   • His main occupation was gathering food.
   • His diet consisted of seeds, roots and fruits from plants and small animals which he captured using tools made of pebbles and stones.
   • They roamed the forest in search of food throughout the day and returned to their caves at sunset to avoid attacks by wild animals.
   • By walking on the hind legs, primitive man’s hands were free to do other activities such as –
     • uprooting edible roots,
     • plucking fruits and vegetables,
     • collecting pebbles from river banks and stones from other places; and
     • making tools from them,
     • hunting animals, skinning them and then eating them.
   • Thus primitive man was a hunter and gatherer. They lived in groups of 20 to 30 people and gathered food obtained from plants. They collected bird eggs and caught fish.
   • Women hunted small animals and collected fruits and seeds from trees. Men hunted big animals.
   • Primitive humans also ate turtles, oysters and clams.

All these facts show that primitive humans shared their food and also collected information about edible plants, ripening time of fruits, animal dens and ways of catching wild animals.

The primitive humans, who were hunters and gatherers, moved from one place to another to collect provisions. They lived a nomadic life. As nomads they roamed over large and distant areas. They had no permanent abode. They lived on river banks where plants and animals were found in abundance. They also lived in caves. When they moved from one place to another they left behind stone and bone tools.

Tools made by primitive man and the discovery of fire

The tools made by primitive man were indicative of the Neolithic era. These tools were elegant and polished, but when they ceased to be useful, humans entered the “agricultural age.”

• Australopithecines –
  • Activities such as gathering food from plants and hunting animals led to the making of different types of tools.
  • The implication here is that Australopithecines probably used tools to chase away wild animals and to hunt animals for food.
  • Stone tools have been found from the sites of Australopithecine fossils in Africa.
• Homo erectus –
  • Homo erectus made hard stone tools and passed on the tradition of tool making to Homo sapiens Neanderthal man as well as Homo sapiens or modern humans.
  • The tools made by Homo erectus were made of flint and the rocks they used to make these tools were quartz, quartzite and other volcanic rocks.
  • The stone-handled axes made by Homo erectus had sharp edges. They sharpened them by hammering a piece of bone or hard wood.
  • These tools were better than the stone tools made by Australopithecus and Homo habilis and easily pulled out edible roots and other parts of plants from the ground.
  • Their sharp edges could cut the hunted animals and helped in skinning them.
  • The wooden spears and bone spears they made helped them hunt large animals, such as elephants, horses, rhinoceroses, and giant baboons.
• Tools of Neanderthals –
  • The tool making technique of Neanderthal man and the tools made by them were of much better quality.
  • They already knew the art of making tools by chipping off flint and they used mortises, bones, wooden hammers and stone hammers which they made by chipping off identical flakes from rocks.
  • They also made knives, pins, fishing hooks and needles and harpoons made of bones.
  • The Neanderthals, like their ancestors, hunted together and hunted large animals like elephants, rhinoceroses, bison, wild horses, bears, wild cats and wild boars. They called them big game.
  • There is evidence that they used spear-shaped tools so that they could hunt animals from a distance.
• Use of fire –
  • Primitive humans, Homo erectus, discovered fire about 200,000 years ago.
  • The discovery of fire had a profound effect on their lifestyle.
  • Primitive humans used fire for a variety of purposes.
  • They realized that fire enabled them to build settlements in cold parts of the earth and meat, when roasted in fire, became tastier and more digestible.
  • Fire was also used to ward off dangerous animals.
  • Fire enhanced the cultural development of humans as well as the use of natural resources.

Use of Resources and Human Society

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The relationship between resource use and human society is a foundational aspect of our history and development. Resources—encompassing everything from natural materials and energy sources to human ingenuity and technology—have been central to the evolution of societies. The ways in which resources are utilized, managed, and distributed have profound effects on social structures, economic systems, and environmental sustainability.

The historical relationship between resource use and human societies is a rich and complex narrative that spans from the earliest human ancestors to contemporary global systems. This relationship has evolved significantly, shaping and being shaped by social structures, technological advancements, and environmental changes. Here’s a detailed historical overview:

Prehistoric and Ancient Resource Use

1. Early Human Societies
   • Hunter-Gatherer Societies: Early humans were predominantly hunter-gatherers, relying on foraging for wild plants and hunting animals. This subsistence strategy required deep knowledge of local ecosystems and seasonal patterns. Resources were used sustainably due to the small population sizes and nomadic lifestyles that prevented overexploitation.
   • Tool Development: The creation of tools from stone, bone, and wood was crucial for resource extraction and processing. Early technologies like flint tools, bows and arrows, and fish nets allowed humans to exploit a wider range of resources more efficiently.
2. Agricultural Revolution
   • Neolithic Transition (c. 10,000 BCE): The shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture marked a significant change in resource use. The domestication of plants and animals led to settled communities and the development of farming. Key innovations included irrigation systems, plows, and selective breeding.
   • Impact on Society: Agriculture enabled larger populations and the rise of complex societies. Resource management became more intensive, with a focus on maintaining soil fertility and managing water resources. This shift also led to the development of private property, social hierarchies, and labor specialization.

Classical and Medieval Periods

1. Classical Civilizations
   • Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley: Early civilizations in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley demonstrated advanced resource management techniques. For example, Mesopotamian irrigation systems transformed arid land into productive agricultural areas, while the Egyptians built complex systems for managing the annual flooding of the Nile.
   • Resource Exploitation: These societies exploited natural resources such as metals (gold, silver, copper), stone (granite, limestone), and timber. Trade networks developed to acquire resources not available locally, leading to increased cultural and economic exchange.
2. Medieval Period
   • Feudal System: In medieval Europe, the feudal system organized land use and resource management. Land was the primary resource, and its management was tied to social and economic structures. Serfs and peasants worked the land and produced food for local lords and for themselves.
   • Technological Advances: Innovations such as the heavy plow, windmills, and watermills increased agricultural productivity. The use of these technologies allowed societies to support larger populations and expand trade networks.

Early Modern Period

1. Age of Exploration and Colonization
   • Global Exploration (15th-17th centuries): European exploration led to the discovery and exploitation of new resources in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Colonization often involved the extraction of valuable resources like gold, silver, and spices, as well as the exploitation of local labor.
   • Economic Impacts: The influx of precious metals and other resources contributed to the rise of global trade networks and the development of capitalist economies. However, it also led to the displacement of indigenous populations and the depletion of local resources.
2. Industrial Revolution
   • Technological Advancements (18th-19th centuries): The Industrial Revolution marked a dramatic increase in resource use. Innovations such as the steam engine, railroads, and mechanized factories transformed production and transportation.
   • Resource Exploitation: Industrialization led to the extensive extraction of coal, iron, and other minerals. The environmental impact included deforestation, air and water pollution, and the depletion of natural resources.

20th and 21st Centuries

1. Post-Industrial Era
   • Technological and Economic Growth (20th century): The post-industrial era saw rapid technological advancements and economic growth. The development of plastics, synthetic materials, and advanced manufacturing techniques further increased resource use.
   • Environmental Awareness: Growing awareness of environmental issues led to movements advocating for sustainable resource management. The publication of works such as Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) highlighted the impact of pesticides and pollution on the environment.
2. Globalization and Sustainable Development
   • Global Resource Use: Globalization has interconnected economies and increased the demand for resources worldwide. This has led to both opportunities and challenges, including resource depletion, environmental degradation, and social inequality.
   • Sustainable Practices: In response to environmental challenges, there has been a growing emphasis on sustainable development. Efforts include transitioning to renewable energy, improving resource efficiency, and promoting conservation and recycling.
   • Climate Change: The impact of human resource use on climate change has become a central issue in the 21st century. Global initiatives like the Paris Agreement aim to mitigate the effects of climate change through international cooperation and sustainable practices.

The historical evolution of resource use and human society reflects a dynamic interplay between technological advancements, economic development, and environmental management. From early hunter-gatherer societies to modern industrial and post-industrial civilizations, the ways in which humans have exploited and managed resources have shaped social structures, economies, and the environment. As we move forward, balancing resource use with sustainability and environmental stewardship remains a critical challenge for ensuring the well-being of current and future generations.

Hunting and Gathering Society

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Hunting and gathering societies, also known as foraging societies, represent a significant stage in human history. They were the primary mode of subsistence for most of human prehistory and provide insights into early human social organization, adaptation, and cultural development. Here’s a detailed historical overview of hunting and gathering societies:

Early Human History and Prehistory

1. Origins and Evolution
   • Paleolithic Era (Old Stone Age): The Paleolithic era, beginning around 2.5 million years ago, marks the advent of early human societies characterized by hunting and gathering. Early hominins, including species like Homo habilis and Homo erectus, relied on foraging for survival. Tools and technologies from this period include simple stone tools and the development of fire.
   • Neolithic Revolution (New Stone Age): Around 10,000 BCE, the Neolithic Revolution began with the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture in various parts of the world, notably the Fertile Crescent. However, hunting and gathering continued alongside agriculture in many regions, reflecting a complex interplay of subsistence strategies.
2. Adaptations and Diversification
   • Regional Variations: Hunting and gathering societies adapted to diverse environments, from tropical rainforests to arctic tundras. Each society developed specific tools, techniques, and knowledge suited to its environment. For example, the Inuit in the Arctic relied on hunting seals and whales, while the San people of Southern Africa used tracking and trapping techniques for game.
   • Social Structures: Early hunting and gathering societies were typically egalitarian, with minimal hierarchical structures. Social roles were often based on age, skill, and experience rather than formal leadership positions. Cooperation and sharing were essential for survival, leading to strong social bonds within the group.

Archaeological Evidence and Anthropological Studies

1. Archaeological Findings
   • Artifacts and Sites: Archaeological sites reveal insights into the lives of ancient foragers. Tools such as flint knives, spear points, and grinding stones indicate hunting and gathering activities. Sites like the Blombos Cave in South Africa and the Mousterian sites in Europe provide evidence of early human behavior and technology.
   • Cave Art: Cave paintings and carvings, such as those found in Lascaux and Chauvet Caves in France, offer glimpses into the symbolic and artistic expressions of prehistoric foragers. These artworks often depict animals and hunting scenes, reflecting the importance of hunting in their culture.
2. Ethnographic Studies
   • Contemporary Examples: Ethnographic studies of contemporary hunter-gatherer societies provide valuable comparisons to prehistoric foragers. Groups such as the !Kung San of Botswana, the Hadza of Tanzania, and the Mbuti pygmies of Central Africa offer insights into traditional subsistence practices, social organization, and cultural beliefs.
   • Social Organization: Studies of these societies reveal that, despite regional differences, many hunting and gathering groups share common characteristics, such as a reliance on communal resource sharing, flexible social roles, and a deep connection to their environment.

Transition to Agricultural Societies

1. Agricultural Revolution
   • Sedentarization: The shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture, beginning around 10,000 BCE, led to the establishment of permanent settlements. This transition allowed for the development of complex societies and the rise of cities and states.
   • Impact on Foragers: As agricultural societies expanded, they often encroached upon and displaced hunting and gathering communities. This transition brought about significant changes in social structures, economic practices, and environmental management.
2. Historical Records and Influence
   • Historical Accounts: Ancient texts and historical records provide evidence of interactions between agricultural and hunting-gathering societies. For example, ancient Greek and Roman writers described the lives of various “barbarian” tribes, many of whom were foragers.
   • Cultural Legacy: Despite the predominance of agricultural societies, hunting and gathering practices continued in various regions. These practices influenced cultural traditions, survival strategies, and ecological knowledge across different societies.

Modern Implications and Challenges

1. Preservation and Adaptation
   • Cultural Preservation: Many contemporary hunting and gathering societies face challenges related to land rights, cultural preservation, and adaptation to modern influences. Efforts to document and support traditional practices are ongoing, with a focus on preserving cultural heritage and promoting sustainable practices.
   • Environmental Management: The ecological knowledge of traditional foragers is increasingly recognized for its relevance to modern environmental management and conservation efforts. Their understanding of ecosystems and resource management practices offers valuable lessons for contemporary environmental challenges.
2. Globalization and Change
   • Integration into Modern Economies: Some hunting and gathering societies have integrated into broader economic systems, engaging in trade, tourism, and other activities. This integration often involves negotiating cultural preservation and economic development.
   • Cultural Adaptation: The pressures of globalization and modernization have led to changes in traditional ways of life. Balancing modern needs with cultural traditions remains a key challenge for many foraging communities.

Hunting and gathering societies represent a foundational aspect of human history, providing insights into early human adaptation, social organization, and cultural development. Their legacy continues to influence contemporary understanding of sustainable practices and cultural diversity. By studying these societies, we gain valuable perspectives on human resilience, ecological stewardship, and the dynamic nature of cultural evolution.

Pastoralism, Nomadic and Settled Communities

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Pastoralism

• Pastoralism is a form of subsistence agriculture that involves the raising of livestock, such as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, and other animals, in open areas where the environment is typically not suitable for crop farming.
• Pastoralism is characterized by the herding and movement of animals to find fresh pastures and water, and it has been a vital part of human history and survival, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.

There is no definite and direct evidence of the emergence of pastoralism. Here we can only speculate and on that basis construct a conceptual idea of ​​that stage. It appears that from the very beginning, hunting-gathering communities must have made a few large animals the centre of their food supply and in this process, hunting of sheep and goats took place in great numbers. In this process, young ones and females, which were capable of giving birth, were left behind so that the source of food supply would not be exhausted. Incidentally, the experience of catching a few young ones and rearing them gave a completely new direction to life, although great care was taken to ensure that the food supply remained intact. This practice must have increased the sense of dependency, that is, the dependence of animals and humans on each other.

It is indicated that three main reasons must have helped in the regular process of animal husbandry in the life style of hunting-gathering communities. These are as follows-

• Control/limitation in the population of animals due to various environmental reasons may have led human communities to look for possibilities of capturing and keeping them captive.
• Greater possibilities of breeding in captivity and increasing their numbers due to favorable conditions, thus helping human communities in fulfilling their food purpose on a regular basis.
• Improving the breeding and lineage of animals by keeping them captive and controlling their feed.

Emergence of Pastoralism

1. Origins and Development
   • Neolithic Revolution: Pastoralism emerged around 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic Revolution, when humans transitioned from hunting and gathering to agriculture and animal domestication. This period saw the domestication of the first livestock species, including sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs.
   • Climate and Environment: Changes in climate, such as the end of the last Ice Age, led to the expansion of grasslands and other environments suitable for grazing. This encouraged the development of pastoralism as people began to exploit these new ecological niches.
   • Regional Variations: Pastoralism developed independently in various regions, including the Near East, Central Asia, Africa, and the Americas. For example, in Central Asia, the domestication of horses significantly influenced the mobility and lifestyle of pastoral groups.
2. Early Pastoral Societies
   • Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Lifestyles: Early pastoral societies often followed nomadic or semi-nomadic patterns, moving with their herds seasonally to access fresh pastures and water sources. This mobility allowed them to survive in areas unsuitable for settled agriculture.
   • Social and Economic Structures: Pastoral societies typically had social structures centered around kinship and clan relationships, with wealth often measured by the size and health of one’s herd. They developed unique cultural practices, traditions, and governance systems linked to their mobile way of life.
3. Key Characteristics of Pastoralism
   • Mobility: Mobility is a central feature of pastoralism, allowing herders to efficiently use resources in different environments, avoid overgrazing, and respond to climatic variability.
   • Resource Management: Pastoralists are skilled at managing natural resources, such as water and grazing lands, often through communal systems that regulate access and use.
   • Animal Husbandry: Pastoralists focus on breeding, raising, and caring for animals that are well-adapted to their environment, which can include managing diseases, breeding practices, and ensuring adequate food and water.
4. Impact and Influence
   • Cultural Exchange and Trade: Pastoralists have historically played a crucial role in cultural exchange, trade, and the spread of goods, ideas, and technologies between different regions. For instance, the Silk Road was facilitated in part by the movement of pastoral groups.
   • Conflict and Cooperation: The relationship between pastoralists and settled agriculturalists has varied from conflict (due to competition for land and resources) to cooperation (such as trade and mutual support).
5. Modern Pastoralism
   • Despite modern changes and challenges, such as land encroachment, climate change, and political pressures, pastoralism continues to be a way of life for millions of people worldwide. It remains crucial for the economy and culture of many regions, particularly in parts of Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia.

Overall, pastoralism is a resilient and adaptable way of life that has evolved over millennia, allowing human societies to thrive in diverse and often challenging environments.

Brian M. Fagan believes that the beginning of the process of animal domestication had far-reaching effects from an ecological-environmental point of view. “Domestication is a process in which genes are selected and it uses the knowledge available from long-term domestication. Wild sheep do not have wool, wild cows give milk only for their newborns and wild chickens do not lay surplus eggs. Domestication and selective breeding of these species in human care have contributed to increasing their milk and egg-laying capacity.”

Indian Context

In the Indian peninsula, the Deccan and the Western Ghats, the nine-month severe dry season does not provide sufficient grass supply for medium-sized herbivorous animals. The shoots of trees form an essential part of their diet. These shoots consist of tasty or palatable herbs, mostly legumes, shrubs such as jujube (Zizyphus spp.), and often the straw, branches, leaves of fallen trees. Such tender leaf components and grass are available in greater abundance in open spaces than in enclosed forests. Moist deciduous forests have very little fodder available at the ground and shrub level and their ability to support terrestrial mammals is also less than in areas with thorny shrubs and dry deciduous areas.

Thus it can be easily imagined that pastoral populations must have been a characteristic of Indian forests too. Even today we find the Jammuwala group of herds found in the once dense Shivalik and Himalayan forests and the Gujjar community found in the parched Aravalli and Saurashtra hill forests dependent on the leaves and bushes of cut branches of trees for the sustenance of their mixed herds of buffaloes and other cattle.

Clear evidence of animal husbandry in India has been found in the Adamgarh Hills situated in the Narmada Valley. This site, which is a rock shelter, has yielded stone tools and other remains of the Mesolithic Age. A thick layer of black soil, which varies in its depth from 50 to 150 cm, contains tools, animal bones and earthenware. “The types of animal bones recovered from the excavations include those of domestic dog, humped bull (Bos Indicus), water buffalo (Babalus Bubalis), goat (Capra Hircus Aegagrus), domesticated deer (Ovis Orientalis Vignei Blyth Race Domesticus), pig (Sus Scrofa Cristatus). Remains of wild animals have also been found, including sambar, barasingha and spotted deer, rabbit, rohi and monitor lizard. Wild and domestic animals are found in almost equal proportions and some burnt bones of cattle, pig and spotted deer have also been found.”

Other interesting evidence, depicted in the rock shelters, relates to domesticated horses which may have been used to pull wheeled carts. The Morhana hill group near Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh is a famous rock shelter group. Two paintings on one of its walls depict chariots with spoked wheels. In one chariot, two horses are shown pulling it and in the other, four. A group of people is also shown stopping the chariots with bows and arrows and spears. Microlithic tools have also been found from this site.

Nomads

• Nomadism is a lifestyle characterized by the regular movement of people from one place to another, rather than settling permanently in a single location. This movement is usually driven by the need to find resources such as food, water, and grazing land for livestock.
• Nomadic lifestyles have been a crucial part of human history and are often associated with pastoralism, hunting and gathering, or trade.

To understand the emergence of pastoral nomadic society as compared to the settled life system of agricultural society, it is important to understand both these types of subsistence systems. Both pastoral and agricultural societies depend on land and water resources for their food. The fertility of agricultural land is used to grow crops from time to time and for this nearby water resources are used for irrigation. Pastoral society uses the fertility of the land; But he is dependent on nature for the supply of his consumed resources. The land is used as a resource by the herds of domesticated animals for the purpose of grazing. The pastoral society does not have any such resources that can renew the fodder in a certain area of ​​land. Similarly, water resources are also used directly and in this use there is no concentrated effort towards its operation. Similarly, the nomadic nature that is visible in the operation of land by the farmer is not necessary for the pastoral society. Due to the need to search for fodder continuously for the herds of animals, there remains a need to move from one place to another. This need itself gave it a nomadic tendency and the ancient pastoral society got connected with the nomadic communities.

The wealth of nomadic pastoral societies was based on the herds of animals and the size of these herds depended on the availability of grazing lands. The economy of pastoral societies was more individualistic than that of agricultural societies. The main concerns of nomadic pastoral communities may have been related to the management of pastoral lands, including rules regarding their use, i.e., the duration of their use and the rights associated with it.

Nomadic pastoralism, according to Romila Thapar, was “generally a fairly conservative organisation, with some minor variations. The family was the base and patrilineal lineage was usually linked to a common ancestor.” (Early India, Allen Lane, 2002, p. 58)

Ecological and climatic factors were central to the life of nomadic pastoral societies of ancient times. It would not have been possible for these communities to live permanently as they had to cover long distances on unpaved paths in search of water resources and good pastures. All these, even if they were in an unorganized form, would have given rise to a kind of regionalism. Over time, these regional communities or groups would have fought for regional rights and it is also possible that there would have been mutual exchanges between these various communities. In this context, we can make an inference from the rock painting of Morhana hill in which two chariots are being hijacked by some people. They have bows and arrows and spears in their hands, which probably depicts territorial encroachment.

Emergence of Nomadism

1. Origins of Nomadism
   • Prehistoric Roots: Nomadism likely originated in the Paleolithic era when early humans were primarily hunters and gatherers. This lifestyle required constant movement to follow animal migrations and seasonal availability of plant resources.
   • Environmental Adaptation: Nomadism emerged as a successful adaptation to environments where resources were scattered and inconsistent, such as deserts, steppes, tundras, and other marginal lands unsuitable for settled agriculture.
2. Types of Nomadism
   • Hunter-Gatherer Nomadism: The earliest form of nomadism, where small groups moved continuously in search of food and resources. This lifestyle dominated human existence until the advent of agriculture around 10,000 years ago.
   • Pastoral Nomadism: Developed alongside the domestication of animals during the Neolithic period. Pastoral nomads rely on herding livestock and often move seasonally to find pasture and water. Examples include the Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, the Mongols of Central Asia, and the Maasai of East Africa.
   • Peripatetic Nomadism: This form involves specialized groups who move from place to place offering specific skills or trades, such as the Romani people in Europe, who traditionally engaged in trades like metalworking, fortune-telling, and entertainment.
3. Characteristics of Nomadic Societies
   • Mobility: The most defining feature of nomadic societies is their mobility. This movement is typically structured and follows seasonal patterns, but can also be opportunistic based on resource availability.
   • Social Organization: Nomadic societies often have flexible social structures with an emphasis on kinship and clan affiliations. Leadership is usually based on merit, experience, or age rather than formal hierarchy.
   • Economy and Subsistence: Nomads are highly adaptable, often employing a mixed subsistence strategy that can include herding, hunting, gathering, and trading. Their economies are typically based on the resources they can extract from their animals or the environment.
4. Impact and Interaction
   • Cultural Influence and Trade: Nomadic groups have historically played significant roles in the exchange of goods, cultures, and ideas between different regions. For example, the Silk Road was not just a trade route but also a corridor of cultural exchange facilitated by nomadic groups.
   • Conflict and Conquest: Nomads have been involved in significant historical conflicts, often due to their mobility and military prowess. For instance, the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan was one of the largest contiguous empires in history, established by nomadic conquerors.
5. Challenges and Changes
   • Modern Pressures: In the modern era, nomadic lifestyles face challenges from government policies favoring sedentarization, land appropriation, climate change, and conflict. Many nomadic communities are pressured to settle and integrate into mainstream economies and societies.
   • Adaptation and Resilience: Despite these challenges, many nomadic groups continue to adapt by integrating new technologies, diversifying their livelihoods, and negotiating their rights to land and resources.
6. Contemporary Nomadism
   • Today, nomadism persists in various forms around the world, though it is often less common than in the past. Contemporary nomadic communities strive to balance traditional practices with the demands of modern life, including access to education, healthcare, and stable incomes.

Overall, nomadism is a dynamic and enduring way of life that has played a fundamental role in human history. It represents a diverse set of strategies for survival and adaptation in some of the world’s most challenging environments.

Settled Communities

Settled communities, also known as sedentary societies, refer to populations that live in permanent locations, such as villages, towns, or cities, rather than moving regularly as nomadic or semi-nomadic groups do.

The emergence of settled communities marked a significant shift in human history, fundamentally altering social structures, economic activities, and cultural developments.

Emergence of Settled Communities

1. Origins and Development
   • Neolithic Revolution: The emergence of settled communities is closely linked to the Neolithic Revolution, which began around 10,000 BCE. During this period, humans transitioned from a nomadic lifestyle of hunting and gathering to agriculture and animal domestication. This shift allowed for more reliable food sources, which supported larger, more stable populations.
   • Fertile Crescent: The earliest known settled communities developed in the Fertile Crescent, a region in the Middle East that includes modern-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and parts of Turkey and Iran. The abundance of wild grains and a favorable climate in this region made it an ideal location for early agricultural experiments.
2. Key Factors in the Emergence of Settled Communities
   • Agriculture and Domestication: The ability to grow crops and domesticate animals provided a more predictable and stable food supply, reducing the need for constant movement. This stability allowed people to establish permanent homes and invest in building infrastructure.
   • Resource Availability: Access to fertile land, water sources, and other natural resources facilitated the establishment of permanent settlements. Rivers, such as the Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus, and Yellow River, were particularly significant as they provided water for irrigation and transportation.
   • Technological Advancements: Developments in tools and technologies, such as pottery, weaving, and improved farming implements, supported settled life by making agriculture more efficient and enabling the storage and processing of surplus food.
3. Characteristics of Early Settled Communities
   • Permanent Structures: Settled communities constructed permanent structures for living, storage, and communal activities. Early architecture included mud-brick houses, granaries, and later, more complex buildings like temples and defensive walls.
   • Social Stratification: As communities grew, social hierarchies began to form. Specialization in tasks such as farming, tool-making, trading, and governance led to more complex social structures with emerging leaders, artisans, priests, and laborers.
   • Economic Systems: The production of surplus food allowed for the development of trade, both within and between communities. Bartering systems and early forms of market exchange emerged, along with the accumulation of wealth and resources by certain individuals or groups.
4. Cultural and Societal Impacts
   • Urbanization: Over time, some settled communities grew into larger urban centers and cities, becoming hubs of trade, culture, and governance. These urban centers were often characterized by monumental architecture, centralized authority, and diverse populations.
   • Development of Writing and Record-Keeping: The need to manage surplus goods, land ownership, and complex social relationships led to the development of writing systems, such as cuneiform in Mesopotamia and hieroglyphs in Egypt. Writing allowed for record-keeping, legal codes, and the preservation of knowledge.
   • Religious and Cultural Practices: Settled life allowed for more elaborate religious and cultural practices, including the construction of temples and other ceremonial sites. Organized religions with priestly classes became prominent, often playing a central role in the community.
5. Challenges and Adaptations
   • Resource Management: Settled communities had to manage resources sustainably to avoid depletion, requiring advancements in agriculture, such as crop rotation and irrigation. However, over-reliance on certain crops or poor resource management could lead to environmental degradation.
   • Conflicts and Defense: As communities grew, competition for resources, such as land and water, often led to conflicts. This necessitated the development of defensive structures and organized military forces.
6. Legacy and Influence
   • Foundation of Civilization: The emergence of settled communities is seen as the foundation of civilization, laying the groundwork for the development of complex societies, states, and empires.
   • Cultural Achievements: Settled life enabled the pursuit of arts, sciences, and technology. It allowed societies to invest time in cultural and intellectual achievements, leading to advancements in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and more.

Overall, the emergence of settled communities represents one of the most transformative periods in human history. It marked the beginning of social complexity, economic diversity, and cultural richness that would shape the future of human civilization.