Hunting and Gathering stage was also a food production stage. History is a description of man’s achievements. The rise and development of man and his civilization is an interesting story. This story of primitive man began with his birth on earth. There are differences among scientists regarding when and how man was born. According to scientists, man was born on this earth 26 lakh years ago in Africa in the Pleistocene era. There is no factual evidence of human life at that time. Therefore, this period is called the prehistoric era.

A large part of the story of the thousands of years of history of the progress of human civilization is hidden in the dense fog of the past. Man is a progressive creature. It is man’s nature to move towards progress. From the very beginning, man had to struggle for his livelihood. He invented tools to protect himself from animals. These weapons and tools made by man were made of stone, so this primitive civilization of man is called the Stone Age. To reflect the development of the Stone Age man, in 1865, John Subbak divided the Stone Age into Palaeolithic Age and Neolithic Age. But in 1887, after the discovery of an archaeological site called Lamas de Agie in France, the existence of a transitional cultural period between the Upper Stone Age and the Neolithic Age was accepted. It was named ‘Mesolithic’. Since prehistoric studies began in Europe, especially France, the terminology used in France was accepted as the standard terminology.

Since when has man existed in India? The answer to this question is found in the large number of stone tools of the primitive age found in the Sohan valley of Punjab and the areas around Madras in South India. These tools and their makers may belong to the second interglacial period. This period is considered to be from 5 lakh BC to 2 lakh BC. According to Dr. H.D. Sankalia, “It is almost certain that the earliest man first entered the hills of Punjab, which was a region cut by the Son, Haro and other rivers and was within the Indus and Jhelum Doabs.”

Research on the Stone Age civilization in India first began in 1863 AD when Robert Bruce Foot, a scholar of the Archaeological Survey of India, obtained a tool of the pre-Stone Age from a place called Pallavaram near Madras. After this, scholars like William King, Oldham, Burkitt, Bean etc. found tools of primitive man from many places (Madras, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa). The most important expedition was that of Yale Cambridge expedition team led by D. Terra and T.T. Patterson in 1935 AD, which conducted a comprehensive survey of Shivalik Hills. These researches increased our knowledge about the Paleolithic civilization.

Scholars believe that this civilization arose and developed in the Pleistocene period, which is considered to be about 5 lakh years ago. Like other parts of the world, the Stone Age in India has been divided into three parts. These are:

1. Palaeolithic Age
2. Mesolithic Age
3. Neolithic Age

Paleolithic Age

The Paleolithic Age, also known as the Old Stone Age, is the earliest and longest phase of human history, lasting from approximately 2.5 million years ago to around 10,000 BCE. This period is defined by the development and use of stone tools and marks the dawn of human culture. The Paleolithic Age is divided into three distinct phases: Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and Upper Paleolithic. Each phase is characterized by advancements in tool technology, social organization, and cultural practices.

Lower Paleolithic (c. 2,50,000 – 1,00,000 years ago)

This is the earliest phase of the Paleolithic, during which hominins like Homo habilis and later Homo erectus emerged. Some key aspects include:

• Tool Development: The hallmark of the Lower Paleolithic is the use of Chopper-Chopping Pebble Culture (Oldowan tools ) and later Hand-Axe culture (Acheulean tools).
  • Oldowan tools were simple stone flakes and cores used for cutting,
  • While Acheulean tools, notably hand axes, were more refined and shaped symmetrically.
• Controlled Use of Fire: Homo erectus was likely the first to control fire, a critical development for cooking food, protection from predators, and warmth.
• Social Structures: Evidence suggests that early hominins lived in small groups and likely shared food and worked cooperatively. These groups were largely nomadic, following herds of animals and seasonal plants.
• Hunting and Scavenging: Early humans were hunter-gatherers, relying on both scavenging meat from dead animals and hunting.

Middle Paleolithic (c. 1,00,000 – 50,000 years ago)

This phase corresponds with the emergence of Homo sapiens and Neanderthals, and is marked by a significant leap in tool complexity and social behaviors.

• Mousterian Tools: The Middle Paleolithic saw the development of Mousterian tools, associated with Neanderthals and early modern humans. These were more sophisticated than earlier tools, often made with the Levallois technique, which involved the careful preparation of stone cores to produce sharp, standardized flakes.
• Cognitive and Social Development: Evidence of burial practices and possible symbolic behavior, like the use of pigments for body decoration, emerges during this period, especially among Neanderthals. This indicates a growing awareness of death, self, and possibly even spirituality.
• Hunting Strategies: Hunting became more organized, with cooperative strategies involving traps and ambushes. Both Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens were adept at hunting large game, and the reliance on meat increased significantly.
• Neanderthals: Neanderthals, a close cousin of Homo sapiens, thrived during this time in Europe and parts of Asia. They had large brains, sturdy builds, and were well-adapted to cold climates. They likely had language and social structures similar to early modern humans.

Upper Paleolithic (c. 50,000 – 10,000 BCE)

The Upper Paleolithic marks the final stage of the Paleolithic period and is associated with modern Homo sapiens. This period witnessed significant advances in technology, art, and social complexity.

• Blade Technology: Upper Paleolithic tools were far more sophisticated than previous stone tools. They were often made using the blade technique, producing long, thin stone flakes that could be further shaped into various tools like spear points, scrapers, and needles. Tools made from bones, antlers, and ivory also became more common.
• Cave Art and Symbolism: One of the defining features of this period is the explosion of symbolic and artistic expression. Cave paintings, such as those found at Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain, depict animals, human figures, and abstract symbols. Carvings, figurines (e.g., the Venus figurines), and personal ornaments also became widespread.
• Social Organization and Trade: The Upper Paleolithic saw more complex social structures, including larger communities and a greater degree of social organization. Evidence of long-distance trade networks for materials like obsidian and shells suggests increased interaction between different groups.
• Hunting and Gathering: Upper Paleolithic people were still hunter-gatherers, but they had refined their techniques significantly. They developed more specialized tools, like the atlatl (spear-thrower) and bow and arrow, which increased hunting efficiency. Fishing and the use of nets also became more common in coastal and riverine areas.

Key Features of the Paleolithic Age

1. Lifestyle: People were nomadic hunter-gatherers. Their survival depended on their ability to find and hunt animals and gather wild plants for food. There was no permanent settlement during this period.
2. Sites: The most important sites of Paleolithic age were Sohan river of Punjab, Vyas-Baanganga River, Sabarmati and Mahi River Valley in Gujarat, Sohan River valley in Madhya Pradesh, Krishna-Tungabhadra River valley in Karnataka etc.
3. Social Structure: The Paleolithic people likely lived in small bands or groups, typically 20-50 individuals, and shared tasks such as hunting, gathering, and child-rearing. The division of labor was likely based on gender and age.
4. Art and Symbolism: Artistic expression was highly developed by the end of the Paleolithic, with cave paintings, carvings, and portable art (e.g., Venus figurines) reflecting not only aesthetic sensibilities but also possible religious or shamanistic practices. These early forms of art may have served social, ritualistic, or communicative functions.
5. Diet: Their diet was varied and included wild fruits, nuts, seeds, meat from hunting, and fish. They likely practiced seasonal hunting and had a deep understanding of the ecology of their environment.
6. Climate: Much of the Paleolithic was characterized by the Ice Age, with periods of glaciation that made life challenging. Adaptations to these colder climates, such as the use of clothing, fire, and more sophisticated shelters, were critical to survival.
7. Religion: There was no religious beliefs and also humans did not know about Burial system and throw the dead bodies here there.

Mesolithic Age

The Mesolithic Age, also known as the Middle Stone Age, is the transitional period between the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone Age). The Mesolithic era is often characterized by significant developments in human technology, society, and subsistence strategies as people adapted to a rapidly changing environment after the last Ice Age. This period lasted roughly from around 12,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE, though these dates vary by region.

Key Features of the Mesolithic Age

1. Transition from Ice Age to a Warmer Climate
   • The end of the Pleistocene Ice Age (c. 10,000 BCE) led to a significant warming of the climate, causing the glaciers to retreat. This environmental shift drastically changed the landscape, animal populations, and plant life.
   • Forests expanded into areas that were once tundra, and new species of plants and animals, such as deer, boar, and wild plants, flourished. Humans adapted to these new conditions by developing more diversified hunting, gathering, and fishing strategies.
2. Microliths and Advanced Tool Technology
   • One of the defining features of the Mesolithic Age is the widespread use of microliths. These are small, sharp, and finely made stone tools, often no larger than a few centimeters, which were typically used as composite tools.
   • Composite tools were created by fitting these small stone blades into wooden or bone shafts to make arrows, spears, harpoons, or sickles.
   • Microliths were highly versatile and could be used for hunting, cutting, scraping, and processing plant materials.
   • Unlike the larger, more crude tools of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic tools were lighter, more precise, and better suited for the diversified tasks required in the changing environment.
3. Diversified Subsistence Strategies
   • The Mesolithic people adapted to their environment by exploiting a wider variety of food sources than their Paleolithic predecessors.
     • Hunting and Fishing: Mesolithic humans continued to hunt game, but they also increasingly focused on fishing and the collection of aquatic resources. The development of specialized tools such as fish hooks, harpoons, and fish traps suggests that fishing became a more important part of their subsistence.
     • Foraging: People also gathered a wider range of wild plants, nuts, fruits, seeds, and berries. The warming climate resulted in a greater diversity of edible plants, and Mesolithic people used tools like sickles to harvest wild grasses and grains.
     • Smaller Game: As large Ice Age megafauna (such as mammoths) became extinct or migrated, Mesolithic hunters focused on smaller game like deer, boar, and small mammals. The bow and arrow, which was introduced during this period, allowed for more efficient hunting of smaller, faster animals.
4. Semi-Permanent Settlements
   • Increased Sedentism: Unlike the fully nomadic lifestyle of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers, Mesolithic people started to establish more semi-permanent or seasonal settlements. These were often located near rivers, lakes, or coasts, where water and food resources were plentiful.
     • Examples of these early settlements include shell middens (large piles of discarded shells) and pit houses. These dwellings were often made of wood, stone, or animal hides, indicating a more permanent lifestyle in some regions.
   • In some areas, Mesolithic people stayed in one place for much of the year, though they may still have moved seasonally to follow animal migrations or to exploit different resources at various times of the year.
5. Beginnings of Domestication
   • The Mesolithic Age marks the transition towards agriculture, although full-scale farming did not begin until the Neolithic Age. During the late Mesolithic, humans began experimenting with the domestication of animals and the cultivation of plants.
     • Evidence suggests that Mesolithic people may have begun herding animals like goats or wild cattle, and they may have tended to small plots of wild cereals, particularly in regions like the Fertile Crescent.
     • This early experimentation laid the groundwork for the Neolithic Revolution, during which the domestication of plants and animals would become widespread.
6. Canoes and Maritime Technology
   • As humans adapted to the abundant resources available in lakes, rivers, and coastal areas, watercraft like canoes became essential. The Mesolithic people were among the first to construct dugout canoes made from hollowed-out tree trunks.
   • These canoes allowed for efficient fishing and transportation across bodies of water, enabling trade and interaction between distant groups.
7. Art and Symbolism
   • The Mesolithic people continued to create art, much like their Paleolithic ancestors. However, their art was often more abstract and stylized, compared to the naturalistic cave paintings of the Paleolithic.
     • Rock art became common in many areas, depicting human figures, animals, and geometric patterns. These artworks were often painted on cliffs or carved into rocks.
     • Some ritual objects and burials from this period also suggest the beginnings of spiritual or religious practices.
8. Burial Practices and Social Organization
   • The Mesolithic Age saw the continuation of burial practices, with some individuals being buried with grave goods, such as tools, ornaments, and animal bones. These burials suggest the development of more complex social structures and possibly early ritualistic beliefs concerning the afterlife.
   • In certain regions, group burials or cemeteries have been found, indicating that social organization might have been more advanced than previously thought.

Key Developments and Regional Variations

• Europe: In Europe, the Mesolithic Age is often referred to as the Epipaleolithic in certain regions, and it is characterized by the widespread use of microlithic tools and increased reliance on aquatic resources. The Maglemosian culture in Northern Europe, for example, is known for its specialized fishing tools and semi-permanent settlements near lakes and rivers.
• Fertile Crescent (Middle East): In the Near East, particularly the Fertile Crescent, the Mesolithic period is known as the Natufian culture. This culture is of particular importance because it shows the earliest signs of a transition toward agriculture, with the harvesting of wild cereals like barley and wheat, and the beginnings of animal domestication. This region became the birthplace of the Neolithic Revolution.
• India: In the Indian subcontinent, the Mesolithic people continued the hunting and gathering tradition, but evidence from sites such as Bagor and Bhimbetka suggests they also used microliths and settled in semi-permanent shelters.

End of the Mesolithic and Transition to the Neolithic

• The Mesolithic Age gradually transitioned into the Neolithic Age around 8,000 BCE, though the timeline varied across regions. This transition marked the advent of agriculture, where people shifted from a nomadic or semi-sedentary lifestyle to permanent farming communities.
• Domestication of plants like wheat, barley, and rice, as well as animals such as sheep, goats, and cattle, began to spread, leading to profound changes in human society. As people settled in villages, population densities increased, and new forms of social organization and technology emerged.

Mesolithic Rock Art

Mesolithic rock art is one of the most fascinating cultural expressions of the Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age), spanning roughly from around 12,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE (varied by region). This art form represents a significant shift in how early humans depicted their environment and themselves, moving beyond the naturalistic animal depictions of the Paleolithic period to include more human-centered and symbolic imagery. These artworks provide invaluable insights into the beliefs, daily life, and social dynamics of Mesolithic people.

Key Features of Mesolithic Rock Art

Important Mesolithic Rock Art Site in India

Bhimbetka Rock Shelters (India)

• Located in central India, the Bhimbetka rock shelters contain a large number of Mesolithic paintings, depicting human figures hunting, dancing, and engaging in rituals. These artworks offer a detailed view of the social and economic life of Mesolithic communities in this region.
• The paintings at Bhimbetka are known for their dynamic human figures, including hunters with bows and arrows, and wildlife scenes that reflect the importance of the natural environment.

Significance of Mesolithic Rock Art

Mesolithic rock art provides a unique and valuable window into the lives of Middle Stone Age people. It reflects the social evolution from the Paleolithic era, with greater emphasis on human activities, group dynamics, and the beginnings of ritual and symbolic thinking. These artworks not only give us a glimpse into the daily life of Mesolithic communities but also offer clues about their evolving worldview as they adapted to new environments and social structures.

Neolithic Age

The Neolithic Age, also known as the New Stone Age, is a crucial period in human history that marked the transition from nomadic, hunter-gatherer societies to settled, agricultural communities. It is traditionally dated between 10,000 BCE and 4,000 BCE, though these dates vary by region. The Neolithic is a part of the larger Stone Age and is preceded by the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and followed by the Chalcolithic (Copper Age) and Bronze Age.

Key Features of the Neolithic Age

1. Grinded and Polished Tools
   • In this era, there was a change in the method of making man-made stone weapons or tools.
   • In this era, the tools were polished by grinding them. Therefore, archaeologists call the tools of this era as grinded and polished tools.
   • Extensive changes were made in the tools of this era keeping in mind the agricultural and animal husbandry economy of that time. Now such tools started being used which were used to dig and soften the ground for sowing seeds, which could separate grains from the ripe crop, could make the land cultivable by cutting trees, plants and grass and with which hunting could be done easily.
   • The main tools found from the archaeological sites of this period include axes made of trap stone, folded harvesters, awls, arrowheads, piercers and scrapers. A large number of bone tools are also found in this period.
   • Along with these tools, the use of Mesolithic micro tools (Microlithis) also continued in this period, but they were also made very pointed and sharp by rubbing. Metal was not in use even in this period.
2. Domestication of Animals
   • Although animal husbandry had started partially in the last years of the Mesolithic period, details of which we had given in the previous chapter, because the bones of dogs were found buried along with human skeletons at an archaeological site called Starcar in England.
   • Therefore, archaeologists believe that man might have made dogs his first companion.
   • Scholars believe that during this period the climate became much drier than before. Therefore, forests started disappearing. As a result, animals started living near human dwellings to fill their stomachs. This close living of humans and animals must have given birth to animal husbandry.
   • Some scholars believe that during hunting, humans might have caught some baby animals and birds alive, which would have been kept for eating after a few days. From here, animal husbandry must have become prevalent among humans.
   • By domesticating animals, meat, milk and skin became easily available to man and he also learnt to use it in agricultural work. Thus, animal husbandry became a major source of economy in the Neolithic period.
3. Pottery
   • Although man had learnt the art of making pottery by hand in the last phase of the Middle Stone Age, which is confirmed by the handmade pottery found from Azamgarh, but in the Neolithic period, there were significant changes in this art.
   • Pottery art emerged as a result of both the inventions mentioned earlier – agriculture and animal husbandry. Agriculture and animal husbandry increased the food material of man unprecedentedly. Therefore, man started feeling the need to protect and store it.
   • Man invented utensils with the help of clay. This was the first chemical invention of man, but it would not be right to assume that the presence of pottery was a sign of the first food producing settlements, because pottery is not available from many sites in the initial food producing levels (Neolithic period). These pottery-less levels are called pre-pottery neolithic levels.
4. Population Growth
   • Agriculture, animal husbandry and good equipment definitely made human life comfortable and easy, the result of which was a considerable increase in population.
   • The size of various excavated and surveyed archaeological sites of this period makes it clear that the population increased in this era.
   • With the advent of agriculture and animal husbandry, man no longer needed to suffer from malnutrition because milk, meat, eggs, fruits, flowers and grains became easily available to him.
   • Stability was introduced in human life and he started living in huts made of grass and straw at one place.
   • The large size of archaeological sites like Mehrgarh, Burzahom, Koldihwa, Shughkral etc. are indicative of population growth.
5. Invention of Wheels
   • The most revolutionary invention of the Neolithic Age was the invention of the wheel. This invention brought human life to the threshold of modern society. With its help, pottery began to be made quickly.
   • With the help of the wheel, he made carts to carry goods and with the help of these carts, he could move quickly from one place to another. With its help, he spun cotton and wool and prepared cloth.
6. Agricultural Revolution
   • The most defining characteristic of the Neolithic Age is the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture. This process, known as the Neolithic Revolution, allowed humans to cultivate crops and domesticate animals, ensuring a steady food supply.
   • Crops like wheat, barley, and legumes were grown, and animals such as sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated. This transition allowed people to produce surplus food, leading to population growth.
7. Sedentary Life and Permanent Settlements
   • As agriculture improved, people began to establish permanent settlements. These early villages were often located near water sources and fertile land, ensuring access to resources necessary for farming.
   • Famous Neolithic sites include:
     • Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey, one of the earliest known towns.
     • Jericho, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities, located in the West Bank.
     • Skara Brae in Scotland, an example of a well-preserved Neolithic settlement.
8. Technological Advancements
   • Neolithic communities developed more advanced tools compared to their Paleolithic predecessors. Stone tools were polished and ground, making them more efficient for farming, hunting, and building.
   • Pottery became widespread, serving both practical and ceremonial purposes. It was used for food storage and preparation, a significant improvement for sedentary life.
   • Weaving and textile production began, with people spinning flax and wool to make clothing and other materials.
   • Construction techniques evolved, with houses often made from mud-bricks, timber, or stone, depending on the region. Some settlements even featured fortifications, reflecting a more complex social structure.
9. Social and Cultural Developments
   • The surplus of food and permanent settlements led to the division of labor. As not everyone needed to farm, some people could specialize in other tasks, such as tool-making, pottery, and weaving.
   • This economic surplus also fostered the growth of trade networks. Early Neolithic people exchanged goods like obsidian, flint, and pottery, as well as ideas and cultural practices.
   • Religion in the Neolithic Age became more structured. The development of agriculture, with its cycles of planting and harvest, likely influenced the rise of fertility cults and earth mother worship. People built megalithic structures like Stonehenge in Britain, which may have had religious or astronomical significance.
10. Changes in Social Structure
    • The Neolithic Age saw the emergence of more complex social hierarchies. As some individuals accumulated surplus food or valuable goods, they gained power within their communities. This led to the development of chiefdoms and other early forms of governance.
    • Evidence of burial practices shows that some individuals were buried with more elaborate goods, suggesting differences in status. These early indicators of social stratification would become more pronounced in later ages.

Neolithic Cultures in India

The Neolithic cultures in India mark an important phase in the region’s prehistory, showcasing a significant transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled farming communities. In India, the Neolithic period is generally dated between 7000 BCE and 2000 BCE, but this timeline can vary across different regions due to local environmental conditions and cultural developments.

Neolithic cultures in India reflect the regional diversity in terms of agricultural practices, tool-making, settlement patterns, and domestication of animals. The Neolithic period in India spans roughly from 7000 BCE to 2000 BCE, but the timeline varies significantly based on the geographical region. India’s Neolithic cultures can broadly be divided into seven major geographical zones. Each zone has unique characteristics and contributions to early agricultural and social development.

1. North-Western Neolithic Cultures
   • This region, primarily the Indus Valley and Baluchistan, represents some of the earliest Neolithic developments in the Indian subcontinent.
   • Mehrgarh is one of the key sites associated with this region.
     • Location: Located in present-day Pakistan’s Baluchistan region, Mehrgarh is one of the earliest known Neolithic sites in South Asia, dating back to around 7000 BCE.
     • Agriculture: Mehrgarh shows evidence of early farming communities cultivating wheat and barley, alongside the domestication of animals such as sheep, goats, and cattle.
     • Tools: Polished stone tools like axes and sickles were used for farming activities, along with microliths, which indicate a combination of hunting and farming.
     • Pottery and Crafts: Pottery from Mehrgarh shows advanced craftsmanship. People also engaged in bead-making using materials like turquoise, lapis lazuli, and shells.
     • Burial Practices: Evidence of burials with grave goods indicates early forms of social stratification.
   • Mehrgarh laid the foundation for later developments in the Indus Valley Civilization, particularly in terms of agriculture and settlement patterns.
2. Southern Neolithic Cultures
   • South India’s Neolithic cultures are distinct from those of the northwestern regions. The Southern Neolithic is dated between 3000 BCE and 1000 BCE and is characterized by a gradual shift from foraging to settled farming communities.
   • Ash Mound Culture
     • Location: Primarily in the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
     • Agriculture: The primary crops cultivated included millets like ragi (finger millet), horse gram, and green gram. Rice cultivation also began during the later phase of the Southern Neolithic.
     • Animal Domestication: The ash mound sites have evidence of extensive cattle domestication. Cattle were used not only for food but also for traction and plowing.
     • Ash Mounds: One of the most distinctive features of the Southern Neolithic is the presence of ash mounds. These are large mounds of ash, likely the result of burning cattle dung or village refuse in ceremonial or communal activities.
     • Important Sites:
       • Kodekal, Utnur, Hallur, and Brahmagiri are important sites in South India that have yielded evidence of cattle rearing and millet cultivation.
       • Sanganakallu and Tekkalakota (in Karnataka) are other key sites that reveal early settlements with extensive stone tool industries.
   • Rock Shelter Sites
     • In addition to settled agricultural sites, the Southern Neolithic also includes rock shelter sites such as those at Hiregudda and Kupgal. These shelters often show evidence of rock art, depicting animals and geometric designs, possibly reflecting early ritualistic practices.
3. Eastern and Northeastern Neolithic Cultures
   • Eastern and Northeastern India feature distinctive Neolithic traditions that differ significantly from those in Northwestern and Southern India. This region is known for the early development of rice cultivation and its connections with Southeast Asia.
   • Chirand Culture
     • Location: Chirand, located in the state of Bihar, is one of the most important Neolithic sites in Eastern India, dating back to around 2500 BCE.
     • Agriculture: Chirand’s Neolithic culture is characterized by the cultivation of rice, marking one of the earliest instances of rice cultivation in the Indian subcontinent. Other crops like barley, wheat, and legumes were also grown.
     • Tools: Stone tools such as polished axes, blades, and microliths have been found, indicating a mix of farming and hunting practices.
     • Pottery: Pottery at Chirand is plain and often handmade, with early examples of painted designs. The pottery reflects simple household needs for food storage and preparation.
   • Daojali Hading Culture
     • Location: The Neolithic culture of Daojali Hading is located in Northeastern India, in the modern state of Assam. This site dates back to around 2700 BCE.
     • Agriculture: The site shows evidence of shifting agriculture or slash-and-burn techniques, which were well-suited to the region’s hilly terrain.
     • Tools: Daojali Hading is known for its distinct celts (polished stone axes) and pottery. Stone tools found at the site suggest trade with Southeast Asia.
     • Material Culture: The use of jadeite for tool-making, which is not locally available, suggests long-distance trade networks extending into Southeast Asia.
   • Garo Hills and Assam Plains
     • Other Neolithic sites in Northeast India, such as those in the Garo Hills and Assam Plains, reveal a reliance on terraced agriculture. These sites also show evidence of early settlements, ceramic traditions, and stone tools.
     • The people in this region cultivated crops like yams, taro, and bananas, with some sites indicating early rice cultivation.
4. Central Indian Neolithic
   • The Central Indian Neolithic is not as widely studied as other regions, but key sites indicate that this area also contributed to the development of early agricultural practices.
   • Bagor Culture
     • Location: In the Rajasthan region, particularly along the Mewar Plains, Bagor is one of the key Neolithic sites in Central India, dating back to around 4000 BCE.
     • Economy: Bagor shows evidence of hunting and gathering, alongside pastoralism. People here were engaged in the domestication of cattle, sheep, and goats.
     • Tools: Polished stone tools like axes and microliths have been found, indicating a transitional phase between hunting-gathering and full-fledged agriculture.
5. Northern Neolithic Culture
   • In North India, the remains of Neolithic period are located in the Jhelum valley in the Kashmir region. Burzahom, Gufkral and Martand can be mentioned among the major archaeological sites.
   • The excavation of the sites named Burzahom and Gufkral was carried out under the aegis of the Archaeological Survey of India under the supervision of T.N. Khazanchi and A.K. Sharma respectively.
   • As a result of the excavations, knowledge of three cultural periods was obtained –
     • Neolithic period
     • Megalithic period
     • Historical period
   • The culture related to Neolithic period has been divided into three sub-periods A, B and C. Neolithic period without pottery can be kept in category A, Early Neolithic period in category B and Late Neolithic period in category C. In ‘A’ period, evidence of human living in pits is found in these archaeological sites. Till now 16 such pits have been discovered in Burzahom. Pillar pits are found at short intervals on the edge of the pits, which shows that thatched roofs were made over these pits. Walls made of pebbles, stones and mud are found in the ‘B’ period. Evidence of platforms is also found in the houses. Houses are also found in the ‘C’ period.
   • Many stone and bone tools are also found from these sites, which include stone axes, piercers, mace heads, hammers, chisels, adzes, shovels, axes, etc. Piercers, arrow heads etc. made of bone and clay bangles, bone and stone beads are also found from these archaeological sites. Most of the shards of Grey ware tradition are found in the ‘B’ period. Impressions of reeds are found on the outside and inside of the utensils. These are not well baked. The main utensils include bowls, plates, pitchers and ordinary saucers etc.
   • Bones of domesticated cattle, especially sheep, goat, dog, deer, chicken, pig, rabbit, fish, rat etc. are found from Burzahom and Gufkral, which show that hunting and animal husbandry had an important place in the economy.
   • Wheat, barley, lentil and pea grains were the main food grains of agriculture in this period. Complete and partial burials of humans and animals have also been found from Burzahom.
   • In some tombs, ochre colour has been applied on the skeletons. Looking at human skulls gives information about skull-process.
   • Domesticated animals like dogs, goats etc. were also buried along with humans. Evidence of dog graves is also found in Ang-Ang-Si culture of Manchuria. Similar evidence is also found in Shilka cave culture of North China.
6. Neolithic Culture of Vindhya region (4000-1500 B.C.)
   • The plateau region situated to the south of the Gangetic region of Uttar Pradesh is called Vindhya region. It mainly includes the area of ​​Mirzapur and Allahabad districts. Neolithic tools have been found from many sites in this region. The major archaeological sites include Koldihwa, Panchoh, Mahgada situated in Bolan Valley. The Department of Archeology and Culture of Allahabad University excavated these archaeological sites. The excavations here have yielded remains of cultures of three periods –
     • Neolithic,
     • Copper Stone
     • Iron Age.
   • The people of this culture lived in round or oval huts built on wooden logs buried in the ground.
   • Pieces of burnt clay with impressions of reeds found in the excavations confirm that the roof was made of grass and reeds.
   • Round samantled stone axes, hammers, mace heads, grinding stones, sling stones, clay beads and unburnished bones of animals have been found in the excavations of Mehrgarh and Koldihwa.
   • The people of this culture used cord-imprinted, rough and polished pottery.
   • Among the main utensils, deep bowls, spouted bowls and pitchers are notable. The people here also used to decorate the utensils. Both types of decorations are inscribed and applique.
   • The main occupation of the people of Koldihwa and Mehrgarh was agriculture and animal husbandry. Cattle-pan has been found from Mehrgarh. Hoof prints of sheep, goats, pigs and deer are found in the enclosure.
   • Remains of paddy grains, husk and straw were found stuck on the pottery shards here, which proves that the people of this culture mainly cultivated rice.
   • On the basis of carbon dates obtained from archaeological sites, the period of this culture has been determined as fifth-fourth millennium BC. The influence of the Neolithic culture of South-East Asia is visible on the Neolithic culture of the Vindhya region.
7. Neolithic culture of Central Gangetic valley (2500-1200 B.C.)
   • The area of ​​spread of this culture is considered to be Bihar. Chirand in Saran district of Bihar is the main excavated site of this culture. Remains of six cultural periods have been found in the excavations here, of which the first cultural period is Neolithic.
   • Probably the people here lived in huts made of bamboo sticks. Handmade and slow-wheeled earthen pots have been found here. These include red, black, grey and black-red pottery.
   • Sticky and engraved decorations are also found. Bowls, plates, urns, pitchers and spouted pots are the main utensils. Quartzite, basalt and granite stone slabs, sling balls, hammers and microlithic tools have been found here.
   • Tools made of bone and horn are the main features of this culture. Needles, scrapers, chisels, drills, piercers, arrowheads, spades, pendants etc. are the main ones.
   • Bones of elephant, stag, deer and rhinoceros as well as bones of domestic animals are also found from Chirand. The people here used to cultivate paddy, wheat, barley and green gram.
   • On the basis of radio carbon dates obtained from Chirand, the time of the culture can be determined as 2500-1200 BC. Archaeologists believe that this Neolithic culture of the central Ganga valley emerged independently.

Cultural Contributions of Indian Neolithic Cultures

1. Agricultural Development: Neolithic cultures in India were pivotal in the domestication of plants and animals. The cultivation of crops such as millet, barley, wheat, and, later, rice played a crucial role in the development of settled societies.
2. Technological Innovation: The Neolithic period saw advancements in stone tool technology, including polished tools like axes and celts, as well as pottery making. These innovations facilitated agricultural production, hunting, and food storage.
3. Regional Diversity: One of the most striking features of Neolithic India is the regional diversity. While Northwestern cultures like Mehrgarh focused on wheat and barley farming, the Southern Neolithic emphasized cattle pastoralism and millet cultivation. Eastern regions were pioneers in rice cultivation.
4. Trade and Interaction: Trade networks connected Neolithic cultures across different regions. The presence of jadeite tools in the northeast, for example, suggests early interactions with Southeast Asia.

The Neolithic cultures of India laid the foundation for the development of complex societies. The transition from hunting-gathering to agriculture, the domestication of animals, and the establishment of permanent settlements contributed to the formation of early states and urban centers, such as those seen in the subsequent Harappan Civilization. Despite regional variations, the Neolithic period in India played a crucial role in shaping the subcontinent’s agricultural, technological, and cultural history.

The ability to produce surplus food allowed societies to grow, develop new technologies, and form more complex social structures. Key advancements, such as permanent settlements, trade networks, and early governance systems, would continue to evolve and influence the formation of cities, states, and empires.

Writing systems, metallurgy, and complex religious institutions would follow, but the groundwork was established in the Neolithic. The agricultural revolution created the conditions for these later developments, making the Neolithic Age a transformative period in human history.