Manual Scavenging

Manual scavenging refers to the practice of manually cleaning, handling, or removing human excreta from dry latrines, sewers, septic tanks, or open drains. This degrading and hazardous practice is often undertaken by marginalized communities, particularly in regions with inadequate sanitation systems. Manual scavengers usually use hand tools such as buckets, brooms and shovels.

Historical Context

The Manual Scavenging has originated during colonial and feudal systems, where specific caste groups were assigned this task. It is strongly linked to the caste system in countries like India, where Dalits and other marginalized groups have traditionally been forced into this occupation. In London, cesspits containing human waste were called 'gongs' or 'jakes' and men employed to clean them 'Gongfermours' or 'Gongfarmers'. Manual scavenging's historical trajectory reveals how deeply entrenched social hierarchies and economic exploitation intersect to perpetuate inequality.

Pre - Colonial or Ancient Period

As we can see during Pre-Colonial period, in India, manual scavenging find its roots in the rigid caste system. The caste system divided the society into the hierarchical groups where the lower castes were assigned menial and stigmatized work. Among them, the Dalits (formerly referred to as "untouchables") were relegated to the most degrading jobs, including the disposal of human waste. This practice was justified by religious and social norms, perpetuating inequality.

Lack of organized sanitation systems in ancient societies necessitated some form of waste disposal. This responsibility fell upon the marginalized communities who were socially coerced to perform these duties. Certain religious texts were misinterpreted to justify assigning such tasks to specific groups, further entrenching manual scavenging as a hereditary occupation to these communities.

Medieval Period

With the growth of medieval cities and urbanization, the need for waste disposal systems increased. Despite this, sanitation technology remained rudimentary, and manual scavenging persisted as a solution. The divide between the elite and the marginalized became more pronounced, with manual scavengers often living segregated lives in the outskirts of the cities. During this time, caste roles were further solidified, and manual scavenging became more systemically tied to specific communities.

Colonial Period

The British introduced urban planning and infrastructure development in India, leading to the establishment of railway stations, public buildings, and cantonments. This created a demand for sanitation services, especially in British colonies, where dry latrines were prevalent. Colonial administrators institutionalized manual scavenging by designating marginalized communities, particularly Dalits, to maintain sanitation in cities and towns. They formalized this work under municipal systems, creating legal and structural frameworks for the exploitation of these groups.

Manual scavengers were often housed in isolated settlements, reinforcing their social exclusion and perpetuating the stigma attached to their occupation. The colonial regime prioritized resource extraction over investment in public welfare, leaving sanitation technology stagnant. This lack of progress sustained the reliance on manual labor for waste disposal.

Post Independence Period

After independence, the practice of manual scavenging continued, as the inherited sanitation systems remained largely unaltered. Structural and societal discrimination ensured that marginalized communities continued to bear the burden of this degrading work. Though laws and policies were introduced to abolish manual scavenging, the deep-rooted caste-based social order and lack of economic opportunities for the affected communities hindered progress. The lack of significant investment in modern sanitation infrastructure, particularly in rural areas, perpetuated reliance on manual scavenging.

Reasons for the Continuation of Manual Scavenging in India

• Insufficient Machines:
  • In India, most municipalities do not have the latest machines for cleaning the sewage systems and due to this the sewage workers are needed to clean the underground sewerage lines through the manholes.
  • The sewage workers are required for cleaning the toilets or pits or sewer or a septic tank.
  • Also the sewage workers or manual scavengers are much cheaper than the machines.
• Caste Based Discrimination:
  • Manual scavenging has historically been associated with the caste system in India, where particular castes such as Dalits have been marginalized and were forced into this occupation.
  • This perpetuation of caste-based discrimination and social stigma contributes to the continuation of manual scavenging as a means of employment for these marginalized communities.
  • In some rural areas, manual scavenging is considered as a traditional occupation of certain caste groups, perpetuating the practice.
• Poverty:
  • The main reason for the continuation of Manual Scavenging is the Poverty. Many marginalized communities or manual scavengers are trapped in this cycle due to lack of education and skill development programs and thus, does not provide any alternative livelihood options.
  • Due to lack of economic forces and less wages to the workers, they are forced to do these occupations to earn livelihood.
  • Due to unemployment and exploitations by the contractors, the workers have no alternative way to earn income.
• Lack of Effective Implementation of Laws:
  • There is a lack of robust mechanisms to monitor compliance with laws prohibiting manual scavenging.
  • There are delays in Rehabilitation programs for former manual scavengers and thus, leaving them without any alternative livelihoods.
  • There are poorly implementation and tracking of the laws like the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013.
• Lack of Awareness among the people:
  • Many people are unaware that the manual scavenging is illegal and inhuman practice in India.
  • Many workers are unaware of their rights and the existence of rehabilitation programs or alternative employment opportunities.
  • Due to lack of awareness programmes and delays in rehabilitation programs, workers considered the manual scavenging as a means of earning.

Effects of Manual Scavenging

• Health Hazards:
  • Manual Scavengers or workers face health risks due to the exposure to many toxic gases such as hydrogen sulfide, methane, and ammonia in septic tanks and sewers which leads to respiratory problems and lung damage.
  • These workers are at high risks of contracting infectious diseases like hepatitis, cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis, skin infections and various respiratory diseases.
  • Without the safety measures, protective gears and poor sanitation conditions or system, there is high mortality rate among these workers.
  • Long-term exposure to filth and pathogens causes chronic conditions like musculoskeletal disorders, joint pain, and gastrointestinal problems.
  • Engaging in manual scavenging can have severe psychological and emotional effects and trauma on these workers.
• Social Effects:
  • These workers face caste-based discrimination where particular castes such as Dalits have been marginalized and were forced into this occupation.
  • These workers lose dignity and respect from people and they were exploited by the contractors and people.
  • These workers are subjected to verbal abuse and mistreatment by employers and the public.
  • These workers are considered as untouchables by the society and thus, makes a gap between them and others.
  • Children of these workers face discriminations and are often marginalized in schools and communities, and are excluded from many activities.
  • Manual scavenging is a clear violation of human rights and dignity and thus, reflects a societal failure to provide equitable opportunities and basic protections.
• Economic Effects:
  • Manual Scavengers often earn meager wages, trapping them in poverty.
  • Due to unemployment, lack of education and skills, they are not provided with high paying jobs and thus, are forced to do these occupations.
  • Due to lack of economic forces and hereditary poverty, they are engaged into the same degrading occupation.
• Impact on National Progress:
  • The prevalence of manual scavenging highlights gaps in sanitation and public health infrastructures.
  • Practices like manual scavenging hinder progress toward achieving goals related to health, education, equality, and decent work.
  • Due to these type of occupations, it became hindrance to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Govt Initiatives to curb Manual Scavenging

• Legal Measures:-
  1. The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993
     • It was the first law for eliminating manual scavenging activities and prohibiting the construction or use of dry latrines.
     • It criminalized employing manual scavengers but it had limited success due to weak enforcement and lack of rehabilitation measures.
  2. The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013
     • Prohibits manual scavenging in all forms, including cleaning sewers, septic tanks, or railway tracks without protective equipment and safety measures.
     • Criminalizes the employment of manual scavengers with penalties for violations.
     • Mandates rehabilitation for manual scavengers, including training, loans, and alternative employment opportunities.
     • Requires surveys to identify manual scavengers and monitor their rehabilitation.
• Schemes and Programs:-
  1. Self-Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS)
     • Stands for Self-Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers.
     • Launched in 2007 and revamped in 2013.
     • Aimed to provide financial assistance, skill development, and self-employment opportunities to rehabilitate manual scavengers.
     • Provides one-time cash assistance, skill training, and subsidized loans for livelihood projects.
  2. Swachh Bharat Mission
     • Launched in 2014.
     • Aimed at eliminating open defecation and constructing toilets, reducing the need for manual scavenging.
     • Promotes the use of modern sanitation systems to minimize manual cleaning of human waste.
  3. NAMASTE
     • Stands for National Action Plan for Mechanized Sanitation Ecosystem.
     • Central Sector Scheme.
     • Aimed to mechanize sewer and septic tank cleaning, replacing manual scavenging with technology-driven processes.
     • Provide training, certification, and dignity to sanitation workers while ensuring their safety.
     • This scheme necessitates the identification and profiling of all septic tank/sewer workers, provision of occupational training and safety equipment, and enrollment in health insurance under the Ayushman Bharat scheme.
  4. National Commission for Safai Karamcharis (NCSK)
     • Established in the year 1993.
     • It studies and evaluates the existing welfare programmes for Safai Karamcharis, investigates cases of specific grievances and related.
     • The Chairperson and Members of the Commission undertake extensive touring of the country to study the socio-economic and living conditions of Safai Karamcharis and their dependents.
     • Union Cabinet has approved the extension of the tenure of the NCSK for 3 years beyond 31st March, 2022.
  5. SafaiMitra Suraksha Challenge (SSC)
     • Launched on 19th November 2020 on the occasion of World Toilet Day.
     • Aimed to encourage cities to mechanise their sewer and septic tank cleaning operations in order to prevent deaths and fatalities of sanitation workers from ‘hazardous entry’.
     • Under SSC, National Safai Karamcharis Finance & Development Corporation (NSKFDC), Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, supported by MoHUA are organizing Loan Melas across the country.
     • Swachh Amrit Diwas is an award ceremony to recognize the role and efforts of the states, cities, ULBs (Urban Local Bodies) and Cantonment Board in Swachh Survekshan 2021, and Garbage Free Star Rating certification on 20th November 2021.

Supreme Court Directions to Curb Manual Scavenging

• In cases of deaths of manual scavengers while cleaning sewers or septic tanks, the Supreme Court mandated payment of ₹10 lakh compensation to the families of the deceased, regardless of the circumstances.
• Supreme Court directed for Comprehensive rehabilitation measures.
• Supreme Court mandated the Strict enforcement of the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013.
• States and Union Territories were directed to conduct detailed surveys to identify all manual scavengers within their jurisdictions.
• Supreme Court directed the promotion of technological solutions for cleaning sewers and septic tanks to eliminate the need for manual intervention.
• State governments were required to submit periodic reports to the central government and the Supreme Court detailing their progress in implementing these directives.
• Supreme Court vowed to go to “any extent possible” to ensure that manual scavenging and hazardous manual cleaning of sewers and septic tanks are wiped out.

Sources

1. Drishti IAS
2. Google Gemini
3. Essays by Aspirants