Read about the Political-Economic Transformation from the 18th century to 1914 which cover many events.

Congress of Vienna

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After the fall of Napoleon, many problems arose. His actions had a very serious impact on all the nations of Europe and it was natural for his fall to have an impact. After Napoleon, the reconstruction of Europe became necessary.

Conference of Vienna Congress

Representatives of all countries except Turkey met in Vienna in November 1814 to establish a new system in Europe. Notable among them were Emperor Alexander of Russia, King Fredrick William III of Prussia and his ministers, Emperor Francis of Austria and his Prime Minister Metternich, Duke of Wellington and his Foreign Minister Lord Castlereagh represented England and Salini represented the Pope. France was represented by Napoleon’s Foreign Minister Talsch.

Along with this, many big and small kings and their representatives participated in this conference. Some historians have expressed that except Italy, a total of 99 great emperors and 53 small kings and their representatives came to participate in the conference. That congress was held in Vienna, Austria under the chairmanship of Prime Minister Metternich.

Principles of Congress

The following principles were recognized in the Vienna Congress Conference to improve the condition of Europe –

1. The first principle was adopted that those states which had helped the nations against Napoleon would be given special rewards and those states which had supported Napoleon would be punished.
2. The second principle was adopted that in future, strict control would be brought on France so that it would not be able to disturb the peace of Europe. For this, the Congress decided the policy that the states adjacent to France should be given a large area and made powerful so that if needed, they could suppress France with their military power.
3. The third principle was adopted that the state system of the European states destroyed as a result of Napoleon’s wars should be reconstructed. An attempt should be made to establish the same kind of system which was in Europe before the French Revolution. For this, the Congress considered it necessary to rescue the old dynasties and hand over the state to them again. This principle is called the ‘principle of legitimate authority’.

Working Method of Vienna Congress

In fact, it would not be inappropriate to call the Congress of Vienna ‘a crowd of European states’ because representatives of all the European states participated in this Congress under the influence of various selfish interests. All the states were included in name but in reality the power was in the hands of Russia, Austria, Prussia and Britain.

The Congress did not have any definite strategy. No proposal was presented, nor was any proposal voted upon. Decisions regarding increasing or decreasing states or fixing their boundaries were taken only on the occasions of dances, shows etc. The condition of dances and shows was such that Vienna defeated the beauty of Indrapuri as well. Pindeling has written, ‘Congress dances instead of moving forward, no decision was taken after proper thinking. The wishes of the people of the countries whose share was being decided by the Congress were not taken into account and seriousness was avoided in a joking manner. Everyone did whatever he liked. In the midst of big feasts and dances, the decision to suppress the objectives of the revolution was taken.’

Main Problems before Congress

• Problems of states which cooperated with Napoleon in War – We have already mentioned that the Congress of Vienna had adopted the principle that the states supporting Napoleon should be punished. The question of punishing those kings who supported Napoleon or followed his orders was a very serious one before the Congress. How to punish those states was a very serious problem. Because now these states had changed their appearance.
• Problem of Re-organisation of different States – During the Napoleonic Wars, many states like Belgium, Holland, Rhine Union, Italy, Equatorial Africa and Switzerland had acquired a very important position. Napoleon had changed the map of Europe. The Congress was faced with a serious problem of determining the boundaries of these different states. The Congress had to decide whether these regions should be left as separate states or they should be merged with some other state.
• Problem of Church – The Vienna Congress also faced the problem of the Church. Before the revolution, the Pope was the religious leader of the whole of Europe. His land was separate from the state and the expenses of the church were met from the income of that land. The church had its own religious courts and it was a ‘state within the state’. Napoleon had confiscated the land of the church and now the church was just an institution of the state. The Pope was imprisoned by Napoleon and every possible effort was made to destroy his dignity. Now the Congress was faced with the problem of how to restore the dignity of the Pope. How to restore his state because a large section of Europe had now become his opponent. Since most of the members present in the assembly were in his favor and they hoped to get help from the Pope in establishing monarchy, so they wanted to reinstate the Pope to his old position.
• Problem to check the Revolutionary Thoughts – Revolutionary thoughts spread in Europe as a result of the French Revolution. Vienna Congress was a hub of reactionaries. Its revolutionary sentiments had to be suppressed, this task was very difficult. The people had by now understood the benefits of popular rule very well. On the other hand, the President of the Congress, Metternich, was a proceduralist and he was strongly opposed to the spread of revolutionary sentiments. He feared that if the ideas of freedom, equality and nationalism spread in Russia, then the rulers there would be finished. He was opposed to the democratic system. In this way, the problem of stopping the revolutionary thinking was very serious in front of the Congress.

Functions of Vienna Congress

Along with making new arrangements in relation to different states, the Vienna Congress also did some other works. The main works among these are mentioned briefly –

1. Formation of International Constitution – To prevent Europe from terrible wars, the Vienna Congress tried to prepare an international constitution. It made rules on such subjects which were very important from the international point of view.
   • Trade restrictions were removed from all the states and all the states could use the seas and rivers of other states.
   • It was also mentioned in the constitution that how different states should behave with each other.
   • The Vienna Congress welcomed international sentiments.
   • The international constitution cannot be applied to decide how the seas and rivers should be used during the war, but there is no doubt that this work of the Congress was very important.
2. Efforts to Remove Slavery System – In the 17th and 18th century, the practice of selling slaves was in full swing. This practice was going on even in the 19th century. People would capture slaves from backward countries and bring them and sell them. The Vienna Congress passed a resolution against this slavery system and made a law to stop it. It declared that slavery is against human rights. As a result of this declaration, a feeling of dissent spread among the slaves of all the states of Europe and gradually this practice ended from all the states of Europe.
3. Efforts to Establish Peace in Europe – In the Vienna Congress, the idea was expressed that permanent peace should be maintained in Europe. As a result of this Congress, a feeling of mutual agreement came among the states of Europe and various states of Europe understood that various problems can be solved by joining hands.
4. Policy Making for different countries – Vienna congress had formulated and laid many policies for different countries mainly to maintain the balance of powers. The policies about different countries were discussed below.

Policies of Congress about Different countries

1. Policy regarding France – The Vienna Congress was organized to stop the power of France which had increased as a result of the French Revolution and the progress it had made during the time of Napoleon. The Congress decided that in order to stop the growing power of France in future, it is necessary to make the boundaries of France as large as they were before the revolution. It was decided to re-establish the rule of the Bourbon dynasty by making the Count of Province, brother of Louis 16th, the emperor of France.
2. Policy regarding Belgium – In order to stop the power of France, the Vienna Congress considered the political situation of every country in Europe and decided to separate Belgium from Austria and join it with Holland. This was done so that the combined power of Holland and Belgium could suppress France and a good centre could be created for war if required.
3. Policy about Germany – After the rise of Napoleon, there were about 100 states in Germany. Napoleon combined some of these states to form the Rhine Union and destroyed many states if Germany. Regarding the states of Germany, the Vienna Congress decided that a new union should be formed by combining 38 states. Many new territories were given to Prussia and the German region of the Rhine river was also given to Prussia. 47% of the Saxony state was given to Prussia and some areas of Poland were given to Prussia.
4. Policy regarding Austria – The problem of Austria was a very important problem. Austria wanted that some part of Belgium should be given to it but there was a fear of the balance of power being disturbed by this arrangement. Therefore, to solve this problem, Austria was given the region of Venice and Illyrian of Lombardy in exchange for Belgium.
5. Policy regarding Prussia – In the decisions taken in the Vienna Congress, Prussia was given special attention. The main reason for this was that Prussia mainly participated in the wars against Napoleon. In this situation, the Congress of Vienna considered it natural to give it various regions. Prussia was given many regions of Germany. Prussia itself had also made a lot of progress and Prussia had become a first class state of Europe.
6. Policy regarding Italy – The Congress of Vienna considered about Italy. The various states of Italy were restored. The throne of Naples was again given to the Eastern dynasty. All those regions of the Pope which were snatched by Napoleon were returned. The state of Piedmont was given to Sardinia and Geneva was merged with the ancient republic. Ancient dynasties were established in Tuscany and Modena. The state of Parma was given to Napoleon’s wife Maria Louisa. Thus many states were created in Italy, as a result of which many difficulties arose in the political future of Italy.
7. Policy regarding Poland – The Congress of Vienna decided to divide Poland into several parts and it was given to Russia, Prussia and Austria. Its main part was given to Russia and the southern part was given to Austria, most of the remaining Poland was given to Prussia.
8. Policy regarding Spain – We have already mentioned that the policy adopted in the Vienna Congress was to establish monarchy in all states and establish the rule of ancient dynasties.
9. Policy regarding Sweden and Norway – The Vienna Congress adopted the policy regarding Sweden that the region of Finland was taken away from it and given to Russia and in return Sweden was given the region of Norway. Norway was earlier under Denmark. Denmark had supported Napoleon and due to this Denmark was punished by taking away the region of Norway from it.
10. Policy about Britain – Congress of Vienna also took special care of the interests of Great Britain. Many new territories were given to Great Britain. Malta, Saint Lucia, Mauritius etc. were taken from France and given to Great Britain. Trinidad was also under Spain, it was taken from it and given to Great Britain. Congress of Vienna increased the colonial power of Great Britain a lot because the islands which were received by Great Britain were very important from social point of view.
11. Policy about Russia – Russia also benefited from the Congress of Vienna. The area of ​​Finland, which Russia had captured, was given to Russia. Most of the Duchy of Warsaw was given to Russia. The area of ​​Bessarabia of Turkey which Russia had captured was also allowed to remain with it.

Demerits of Vienna Congress

1. Conference of Aristocrat Class – The Vienna Congress was influenced by the members of the aristocratic class. This class was a supporter of monarchy to maintain feudal rights. Therefore, it could not even look at the interests of the common people. The decisions taken in this conference to restore monarchy were looked down upon by the progressive thinkers of the future.
2. Ignorance of Public opinion – The decisions of the Vienna Congress were made out of selfishness and public opinion was ignored in them. The public had no distrust towards the leaders in this conference. The kings and their representatives of various countries of Europe participated in the Congress. No representative of the people of any country was invited. The public was not benefiting in any way from the decisions taken by the kings and their representatives and neither did the rights of the public have any value for the politicians gathered at the Vienna Congress. Public opinion was ignored in the Congress and this was the reason that the decisions taken by the Congress could not be permanent. Since public opinion was ignored, it was natural for problems to arise in the future.
3. Negligence of Revolutionary Trends – All those tendencies which arose as a result of revolution were neglected in the Congress of Vienna. In this Congress, feelings like equality, freedom and fraternity were completely neglected. Many nations participated in the Congress but ignoring equality, only four nations dominated the entire Congress.
4. Negligence of National Feelings – The Vienna Congress did not pay any attention to national feelings. The ideals of democracy which were declared by the French Revolution were trampled upon by the leaders of the Congress and Europe was rearranged according to their wishes, as if the whole of Europe was their personal property. Various states were merged, divided or given to whomever they wished and no care was taken for the people of those states and their national sentiments. The states of Europe were unfairly divided. Norway was merged with Sweden against its will. Poland was divided into many pieces without paying attention to the national sentiments of its people. Similarly, Italy was divided into many states. Germany’s boundaries were greatly narrowed by hurting its people. All the actions of the Congress were against the spirit of nationalism and its reaction was also natural.
5. Importance of Power Balance only – The politicians involved in the Vienna Congress gave importance only to maintaining the power balance and the boundaries of various states were determined in such a way that France could not raise its head again. This maintained the power balance between the four big states. While doing this, they did not pay any attention to the welfare of the people, religion and the feeling of unity. The arrangement of the Vienna Congress was actually not an arrangement at all. The emperors absorbed the small states keeping in mind their own interests. Urudasa wrote, “The principle of power balance did not maintain peace and security because one power did not have dominance in Europe.”
6. Temporary Arrangement of Congress – The mistakes made by the Congress of Vienna were unable to establish peace in Europe. This statement did not seem appropriate to the admirers of the Vienna Congress. “The Vienna Pact was an honest effort to prevent future wars and the best that could happen in Europe in that era.” In fact, where the principle of equality has been ignored, how can peace be imagined? The result was that the arrangement made by this Congress proved to be temporary. According to the decision of the Congress, Belgium, which believed in Catholicism, was merged with Holland who believed in Protestantism. How could this conference happen? Norway was with Denmark in ancient times, but now it was merged with Sweden. Even the merger of Norway with Sweden could not be temporary. Germany wanted its unification, but it was divided into many small states. Due to this, Germany was also satisfied with the decision of the Congress. By establishing the rule of the Bourbon dynasty in Italy, the influence of Austria was established on the north. As a result, Italy also remained dissatisfied. Thus, the result of all this was that after 1815 AD, all the decisions of the Vienna Congress started being reversed.

Results of Vienna Congress

• Reduction in the military Power of France – The military power of France was reduced to a great extent by the Treaty of Vienna. Napoleon had reorganized the military power of France and prepared a powerful army. This army caused chaos and destruction in many countries of Europe. Due to repeated wars by Napoleon, the military power of France suffered a great blow. The Vienna Congress of 1815 reduced the power of France. A heavy fine was imposed on France. A huge army was stationed in France by the Allied countries. The result of this was that France’s wings were cut and it remained only a second-rate power.
• The Dominance of Metternich in European Politics – The far-reaching result of this agreement was that the dominance of Metternich was established in European politics. Undoubtedly, he was the pivot of this treaty and he also had a deep impact of reactionary policies on the main terms of the treaty. As a diplomat and politician, Metternich established his power in Europe. Due to his influential personality, the period from 1815 to 1845 is known as the Metternich era in the history of Europe.
• Increase in the Russian Power – Through this treaty, Russia’s stature in European politics increased. According to the terms of the treaty, Russia received the territories of Poland and Finland and its empire grew. Now Russia started being counted among the major countries of Europe.
• Austrian Dominance in Central Europe – If we take a look at the conditions of the Vienna Congress Treaty, we can see that Austria became the leader of Central Europe. It was Austria that established a loose union of 39 states in Germany. Austria itself was its head. Not only this, but by gaining control over Lombardy and Venice, Austria emerged as a major power in Italy. After the Vienna Treaty, Austria established its dominance over the states of Germany and Italy.
• The Establishment of Prussian influence in Germany – Under the Vienna Treaty, Prussia received a lot of territories. It received the regions of Rhine, Saxony and Pomerania from Sweden in Germany. After receiving these territories, Prussia’s influence increased in Germany. With time, Prussia brought together the German states and established its authority in Germany.
• England Emerges as the Colonial Power – Under this treaty, England got many important colonies. Now it emerged as a major colonial power in the world. Whatever it got proved that England is interested not only in Europe but also outside it. Now England started insisting on adopting a policy of brilliant isolation in the foreign region.
• Foundation of the Unification of Italy and Germany – As mentioned earlier, the influence of Prussia increased in Germany through the Vienna Congress and as a result, the influence of Austria decreased. As a result, Germany achieved unity under the leadership of Prussia in the future. According to this, the state of Piedmont Sardinia got the areas of Savoy, Nice and Genoa. Later, the unification of Italy became possible under the Savoy dynasty of Sardinia.
• Establishment of International Peace – International peace could be established in Europe through the Vienna Treaty. All the members of the Congress wanted to establish peace. The decisions taken by this Congress towards maintaining the balance of power, reducing the military power of France and establishing joint rights of all countries on international rivers undoubtedly proved helpful in establishing international peace.
• Steps taken in the direction of Humanity – The law passed to end slavery was a notable achievement of the Vienna Congress. Later, many countries took concrete steps to abolish slavery.

Criticism of Vienna Congress or Treaty of Vienna

The Treaty of Vienna has been praised on one hand and on the other hand it has been severely criticized. According to Hazen, “It is impossible to find any high principles behind these actions of the conference. All deals and agreements were made only out of selfishness.” This treaty is criticized on the following grounds :-

• Unjustified Division – The division of territories made by European countries was unjust and unfair. Although big claims of principles were made before taking the decision, these principles were not actually adopted. Only four big countries (England, Austria, Prussia and Russia) tried to increase their influence. The Treaty of Vienna was in a way similar to the division of looted goods by the victors.
• The Vienna Congress Power Temporary – The decisions taken by the Vienna Congress did not prove to be permanent. C.G.H. Hedge, while criticizing this treaty in his book Modern Europe, has written- ‘There were less permanent things and more temporary things.’ This fact is proved by the fact that –
  • Belgium separated from Holland after only 15 years.
  • The policy adopted towards Italy and Germany ended in 1875.
  • Norway was re-annexed to Sweden.
  • The same was true for Russia’s rights over Finland.
• Suppression of National Feelings – According to historian Hedge, ‘The Vienna Conference was a conference of aristocrats. Those people were unable to accept the ideals of nationalism and democracy which were declared by the French Revolution.’ The rulers rearranged Europe according to their own will as if it were their personal property. They did not pay heed to the feeling of nationalism which had arisen nor to the aspirations of the people. They did not determine the boundaries of the states in such a way that the wishes of the different races were fulfilled. For example, merging the Italian states with Austria, subordinating Poland to Russia and uniting Norway and Sweden – all these decisions were not in accordance with the wishes of the people.
• Restoration of Despotism – The basis of criticism of this treaty is also that despotism was again established in European countries. The rule of despot kings was established on the territories of Italy, Germany, Belgium and Poland and democratic ideas were suppressed. The policy of despotism and arbitrariness was started again.
• The Vienna Settlement brought humiliating for France – This treaty proved humiliating for France. By this treaty, the boundaries of France were made the same as in the year 1790-91. Not only this, but the military strength of France was also reduced. A heavy fine was also imposed on it. Even, the foreign army was given the responsibility of managing its forts.
• Misuse of the Principle of Legitimacy – The Vienna Treaty did not apply the principle of legitimacy equally to all countries. For example, this principle was not implemented on the old republics of Italy, Venice and Genoa. The Holy Roman Empire was also not established according to this principle.
• The Easter Question – Critics believe that the Vienna Agreement could not find a solution to the Eastern Problem. Turkey was not invited in this agreement. The discontent that was growing among the Balkan states against Turkey was undoubtedly a threat to the peace of Europe

Reconstruction of Europe after Vienna Congress

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Napoleon had badly ruined the map of Europe. For his convenience, he had torn off the territories of one country and attached them to another country. But when he was defeated and sent to the island of Elba in 1814, the rulers of Europe were faced with the problem of how to reconstruct the map of Europe.

Since Metternich had played a very important role in the defeat of Napoleon, Vienna was chosen for discussions and deciding the arrangement of Europe. Many kings, foreign ministers and rulers gathered in Vienna and kept discussing during the winter of 1814-15. There was a big difference of opinion among these conquerors regarding the fate of Poland and Saxony. Finally an agreement was reached which was signed a few days before the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 –

• The Vienna System was based on three principles – restoration, justice and compensation. The doctrine of restoration meant that as far as possible the boundaries of the country and the dynastic rule that were in place before the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon should be restored. The doctrine of restoration was related to justice, which the French diplomat Talleyrand was using to save France’s territory from being snatched away and to make his defeated country capable of participating in the discussions of Europe. The Orange dynasty was established in Holland. The Savoy dynasty was reestablished in Piedmont and Sardinia. The Pope was reestablished along with all the kingdoms in Italy. The estates of many German vassals which had been annexed to the ‘Rhein Confederation’ were returned. The Swiss Confederation was reestablished. Tyrol was returned to Austria. Austria was considered to have rights over the Austrian Netherlands, but it was allowed to exchange this region with any other region.
• In the Napoleonic Wars, Britain had taken away the Dutch colonies Lanka, Cape Colony, South Africa and Guyana. These regions were allowed to remain with Britain. But with the idea of ​​compensating Holland and creating a powerful country on the northern border of France, the Austrian Netherlands was given to Holland. The King of Holland was made the King of the United Netherlands. As compensation for the Netherlands, Austria was given Lombardy and Venice in Italy. Kings of the Habsburg dynasty were placed on the thrones of Tuscany, Parma and Modena. Pomerania and Finland were taken away from Sweden and given to Prussia and Russia respectively. Sweden was compensated by taking Norway from Denmark and giving it to Sweden. Denmark was punished for supporting Napoleon for a long time.
• Prussia also benefited a lot. It regained its German territories taken away by Napoleon. It got Pomerania, occupied by Sweden, 2/5th part of Saxony, the whole of Westphalia and a lot of Rhineland. The intention behind giving all these territories to Prussia was to make Prussia the main barrier against France. The result of this expansion was that Prussia became the leader of Germany. This increased its sources of minerals, which helped it to become a huge industrial country. By returning the territory of Poland to Russia, Prussia became a purely German country.
• With the objective of maintaining the balance of power and creating a circle around France, it was decided that the kingdom of Sardinia should be expanded and strengthened. Savoy and Petmond were returned to this kingdom and Geneva was also given.
• With regard to Germany, it was decided that its small kingdoms before the French Revolution should not be returned. In 1806, Napoleon had destroyed the Holy Roman Empire, so no attempt was made to recreate it. It is true that people like Stein supported unifying Germany under one power, but Frederick William II did not show any interest in this and Metternich had assured the vassals of South Germany that their power would be kept intact. None of the kings of Prussia, Austria and small German principalities showed enthusiasm in creating a united Germany and thus the opportunity to unite Germany was lost. A loose German Confederation of 38 states was formed. A parliament was formed in Frankfurt in which representatives from different states came. This parliament was chaired by the Chancellor of Austria. Austria was given the right to send 6 representatives to this parliament. Not all states were given representation in it. Members were forbidden to establish relations with any foreign power against the entire union or any member of the union. Although formally all the countries of Europe had recognized the German Union, but in reality Austria had the upper hand in the political field.
• Finland was allowed to remain with Russia, because it had won it from Sweden. Basaravia, which it had won from Turkey, was also given to it. It also got a large part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.
• England acquired control over Heligoland in the North Sea, Malta and the Ionian Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, the Cape Colony of South Africa, Lanka and other islands.
• Austria Hungary got its Polish territories, because Holland was given to Belgium by taking it from Austria-Hungary, so in return Austria-Hungary was given Lombardy and Venice. It also got the Illyrian province on the eastern shore of the Adriatic. Napoleon’s wife Maria Louisa, who was the princess of Austria, was given the principality of Parma. Princes belonging to the Austrian dynasty were placed on the thrones of Modena and Tuscany.
• In the name of justice, France’s country was returned, but it was put in the circle of Netherlands, Prussia and Sardinia. The leadership of Europe passed from France to Austria. The expansion of Austria’s state made it a great power in Europe. It dominated both Germany and Italy. It became more German than before. Although the King of Austria lost the title of ‘Holy Roman Emperor’, Austria still gained complete control over Germany.

Concert of Europe

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The Concert of Europe was a system of diplomacy and collective decision-making among the major European powers in the 19th century, particularly after the Napoleonic Wars. It emerged around 1815, with key players including Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain, and later France.

The Concert of Europe was a general agreement among the great powers of 19th-century Europe to maintain the European balance of power, political boundaries, and spheres of influence. The main goals were to maintain a balance of power, prevent the spread of revolutionary movements, and manage conflicts through negotiation rather than war. The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) laid the groundwork, establishing borders and restoring monarchies.

As far as the European Joint System is concerned, it is taken to mean that establishing peace in Europe is a shared responsibility. Keeping this in mind, the Holy Alliance was established in Europe which was based on the principles of Christianity. But the Holy Alliance failed in its mission.

As a result, on 20 November 1815, four major countries, Russia, Austria, Prussia and England signed a document. On the basis of this document, the Four-Fourth Alliance was established which later became the European Joint System. The main objective of this group was to establish peace in Europe or to give a permanent form to the decisions taken in the Vienna Congress. Many conferences were organized through the European Joint System so that a permanent solution to the problems could be found. Austria’s Prime Minister Metternich played an important role in the establishment of this group. The members of the Four Fronts of European Friends wanted to bring about political reconstruction in Europe and it was decided that conferences would be held from time to time keeping in mind the aspirations of Europe.

Aims of this Quadruple Alliance

1. To recognize the decisions taken in the Vienna Conference, to follow those decisions oneself and to get them followed by others.
2. To prevent Napoleon or any person from his lineage from sitting on the throne of France again so that security can be maintained in Europe.
3. To prevent the revolutionary and nationalistic sentiments from spreading in Europe.
4. To implement the second treaty of Paris so that France’s aggressive policy can be stopped.
5. Its main objective was to protect the rights of autocratic kings.
6. To establish peace in Europe, to find solutions to economic and other problems in a peaceful manner.
7. To sit together and discuss mutual differences and common problems.

Conferences of Quadruple Alliance

The conferences organized by the members of the Quadruple Alliance during the period from 1815 to 1825 hold special importance in the history of Europe. Metternich was supreme in these conferences and the imprint of his personality is clearly visible in these conferences. The details of various conferences and the solutions of the problems solved by them are as follows –

Congress of Aix La Chapelle 1818

The first conference of the members of the Four Frontier Alliance was held in 1818 in the German city of Aix La Chapelle. International issues were discussed in this conference, such as improving the economic condition of Europe, maintaining mutual cooperation, considering the principle of justice to be high and encouraging religious sentiments. This conference is considered to be one of the best conferences in the history of Europe. All the issues and problems raised in this conference were worth considering. The following decisions were taken in this conference –

1. As France fulfilled the conditions laid down by the Treaty of Paris and it was decided that the Allied Nations should withdraw their combined forces from France. It was also decided that France should be included in the Four Front Alliance. As a result, what was till now the Four Frontier Alliance became the Quintuple Alliance.
2. When the ruler of Sweden did not accept the terms of the treaties with Norway and Denmark, an explanation was sought from the ruler about it.
3. The problems of German princely states were discussed in this conference, for example, the permission sought by the Elector of Hesse to assume the title of king was not granted. The question of Baden’s succession was decided by this Congress. Similarly, it was decided to put a ban on the expansionist policy of Bavaria. Not only this, the king of Monaco was also ordered to treat his subjects well.
4. The arrangements of Austria and Prussia were also discussed in detail in this conference.
5. It was decided to form a board to improve the economic system of Europe and maintain cooperation in them, to develop justice and religious sentiments.

Differences arose among the member countries on some problems in this conference and it became difficult to reach a definite decision. As a result, unity could not be maintained among the allied countries. The problems which came before this conference and which could not be resolved are described as follow –

• Revolt in the Spain’s colonies – When a rebellion broke out in Spain’s colonies in America, the ruler of Spain, Ferdinand VII, appealed to the Allied countries for help. While Russia and Austria agreed to help, England was reluctant. England’s argument was that the Council should not interfere in the internal affairs of others. In fact, England could have suffered losses due to slave trade in its colonies.
• Problem of Barbary Pirates – The pirates of Africa were a headache for the European countries. These pirates used to loot the merchant ships of European countries. Russia proposed to establish an international military organization to deal with this problem. This proposal was opposed by England because the entry of Russian ships into the Mediterranean Sea was against the interests of England.
• Slave Trade – Slave trade was discussed in this conference. England wanted that the allied countries should be given the right to search each other’s ships to stop the slave trade. But Austria and Russia opposed England’s suggestion and the slave trade could not be stopped.
• Russia’s Proposal for a General Alliance – Russia presented a suggestion that the allied nations should make a ‘general treaty’ to protect the borders of the European countries and the thrones of their rulers from the dangers of revolution. On one hand, this proposal Austria and Prussia supported it, while England opposed it. England’s representative Castlereagh believed that such a treaty would prove to be an obstacle in the path of revolutionary movements in Europe. Apart from this, the Allied nations would be forced to unnecessarily intervene in small states. Thus, due to England’s opposition, this proposal could not be implemented.

Significance of the Congress of Aix-La Chapelle

This conference has a special significance in the joint system of Europe. Many important decisions were taken in this conference –

1. This conference tried to find a solution to mutual problems for the first time.
2. Through this conference, England made Europe aware of the reactionary policies of the Allied countries.
3. The proposals put forward by the Czar of Russia gave us knowledge about the views of England and other countries. Despite mutual differences, the importance of the work of the Aix-La Chapelle Conference cannot be denied.

Congress of Troppau, 1820

After the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, the second Congress of the Four-Fourth Alliance was called in the German city of Troppau in 1820. In 1820, people in various European countries like Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sardinia and Greece revolted and the peace of these countries was in danger. This Congress was called on the initiative of Austria to maintain law and order and suppress the disturbances. The rebellions in Spain and Naples had become so strong that the rulers there had to implement a new constitution in the country. Czar Alexander of Russia proposed to send Russian army to suppress the rebellion in Spain but Metternich did not pay any attention to it. On the other hand, when there was a revolt in Naples, Metternich got worried because it could pose a threat to Austria’s dominance, so he planned a conference and a conference of the allied countries was called in Troppau in October 1820.

When the conference started, Metternich put forward some proposals which were not accepted by England and France, but Metternich got consent on these proposals from Russia and Prussia. A proposal was presented to the effect that if there is a revolution in any country, it should be considered a common threat for the allied countries. Metternich also proposed the right to intervene to suppress the rebellions. He propounded a new principle which is known as the ‘Treaty of Troppau‘. According to this principle –

1. If the rule of any state changes as a result of rebellion, or a threat arises for another country, then the allied countries will have the right to suppress those movements with their armies.
2. If there is a danger of peace being disrupted in any country due to rebellion, then the friendly countries will be ready to help that country peacefully and with military power.

While Prussia and Austria accepted these principles on one hand, England and France objected to it on the other hand. Thus, mutual discord arose among the members of the League and the proceedings of this conference were terminated.

Congress of Liabach, 1821

After the failure of the Tropa Conference, the third conference of the Allied countries was held in 1821 AD in the Austrian city of Liabach. Metternich wanted to suppress the rebellion of Naples at every cost. He was busy in finding ways to legitimize Austria’s action in Naples. He gave many arguments in his support. For example, he said that Austria has special privileges in Naples by the secret treaty of 1815. The second argument given was that the rebellion of Naples is a special threat to Austria.

Prussia and Russia fully supported Metternich’s claims. England, in view of the situation, accepted Austria’s special privileges in Naples and gave Metternich the freedom to take action. After Austria sent the army, Ferdinand I was again enthroned in Naples.

Congress of Verona, 1822

The fourth conference of the Allied countries was called in the Italian city of Verona in 1822 AD. The following two circumstances were behind calling this conference –

• On 1 March 1821, a rebellion broke out in Greece against Turkey. Russia was helping Greece in this rebellion. By doing this, it wanted to establish its dominance in the Roman Sea and the Balkan regions. England and Austria did not like this intention of Russia. Therefore, both England and Austria together tried to stop the influence of Russia.
• The second reason was the rebellion raised by the people of Spain against their ruler Ferdinand VII. When it was seen that it was difficult to control this rebellion, then keeping in view the sentiments of the people, the religious court was dissolved and the constitution of 1812 was implemented. The ruler there also restored the rights of the people. The French emperor Louis XVIII wanted to help Spain because the ruler there, like Louis XVIII, belonged to the Bourbon dynasty.

In such a situation, France presented a proposal to help the ruler of Spain. On one hand, Austria, Ruth and Prussia gave France permission to intervene in Spain, on the other hand, England’s foreign minister Canning expressed objection to it. Canning even said that England would prefer to separate from the European joint system rather than the allied countries intervening in Spain. But without caring about this threat of England, the French army started action in Spain in 1823 and the rebellion was suppressed. The autocratic rule of Ferdinand VII was re-established in Spain. By doing this, England became isolated from the allied countries. Thus the joint system of Europe was shattered.

Congress of St. Petersburg, 1823

This conference was called in 1823 in St. Petersburg, the capital of Russia. The main objective of this conference was to discuss the issue of independence of Spanish colonies in America. From 1823, Spanish colonies in America had started demanding independence. Various colonies like Chile, Peru, Argentina and Mexico had declared their independence. As a result, this conference was called on the insistence of Russia, Austria, Prussia and France. In this conference, it was decided that the ruler of Spain would be helped and the member countries would send their armies to these colonies to help Ferdinand. On the contrary, England and America opposed this decision. England’s Foreign Minister Canning warned that if the members of Petersburg send their armies to help Ferdinand, then England will send its armies to these colonies.

While England expressed such a reaction on one hand, on the other hand, America’s President Monroe also made an announcement. This announcement is known as the Monroe Doctrine. In this announcement, it was said that “America will not interfere in any way in the internal affairs of Europe, nor will it like the interference of other powers.”

If the members still take such a step, then America will send military help to these colonies. In this way, under the pressure of England and America, Russia, Prussia, Austria and France expressed their inability to send any kind of military help to the colonies. In such circumstances, it became impossible for the Spanish ruler Ferdinand to suppress the rebellion and the colonies gained independence and democratic governments were established there. This was a diplomatic victory of England’s Foreign Minister Canning. Expressing his happiness over this success, he said these words –

“I have called new world into existence to redress the balance of the old.” ~ Canning

Causes of the failure of the concert of Europe

The following were the reasons for the failure of the concert of Europe –

1. Selfish interests of the allied countries – The countries of the concert of Europe were selfish. They had different views and ideas. These countries did not have any definite objectives and principles. There was a lack of mutual cooperation and unity among them. Every country considered its interests supreme. Its main member countries had not learnt to leave national interests for international interest. In such circumstances, the failure of the concert of Europe was certain.
2. Mutual rivalry – There was a feeling of jealousy among the countries of the European concert of Europe. Due to this hatred and rivalry, it was difficult to reach any decision. There were many issues on which these allied countries did not have a consensus. For example, the problem of slave trade, the question of suppression of pirates, Greece’s rebellion against Turkey, etc. In such circumstances, the situation kept deteriorating day by day and finally these circumstances became the reason for the failure of the concert of Europe.
3. The reactionary character of the concert of Europe – People of liberal ideology in Europe looked at the concert of Europe with suspicion. The main reason for this was the reactionary nature of the concert under Metternich. Due to the influence of Austria, the rebellions of Naples, Piedmont and Spain were suppressed. Thus, the reactionary nature of this concert became the main reason for its weakness.
4. The anti-national feelings – The growth of anti-friendly national feelings was also responsible for the downfall of this system. The governments of these countries did not have a consensus in their ideology. They could not reach a single decision. While the government of England believed in democratic ideas, on the other hand, the governments of Austria, Russia and Prussia believed in autocracy and autocracy. They considered the growth of national sentiment in any part of Europe a threat to themselves. Historian Lipson has written in his book ‘Europe in the Nineteenth Century’ thus – “The rock of opposing national sentiments shattered the efforts to establish a European Union.”
5. No place for small states – The Allied nations did not give any importance to small states in the joint system of Europe. In this system, mainly five big nations dominated. These big countries decided the future of small states according to their wishes. Small states did not like this attitude of big countries and they considered this system as a mere means of oppressing them and wished for its downfall.
6. Opposition by England – England played a major role in making the joint system of Europe unsuccessful. England understood very well that Austria’s Prime Minister Metternich wanted to spread reactionary policies in Europe along with other countries. England’s representatives opposed the policies of the ‘joint system’ in every conference. As soon as England separated itself from the joint system of Europe in 1822, its failure was almost certain.
7. Unnecessary fear of Revolution – There was a lot of difference in the political views of the allied countries. If there was one thing common between them, it was that all of them were against revolution. All of them were afraid of revolution and its principles. Their main goal was to suppress revolutionary thoughts and sentiments. If any national or democratic movement arose in any country, they left no stone unturned to suppress it. As a result, this system finally reached the verge of collapse.
8. Monroe’s Doctrine – The immediate reason for the failure of the joint system of Europe was the orders of American President Monroe. When the danger of Spain’s interference in the American colonies was increasing, America decided to oppose the joint system. The warning given by Monroe was undoubtedly enough to cause the failure of the joint arrangement of Europe.
9. Defect in the Organisation of Concert of Europe – The basis of the concert of Europe was flawed. The concert of Europe had no fixed office and no staff. Its machinery was based on a makeshift system. Its foundation was not laid on any solid foundation. Under such circumstances, its failure was natural.

Significance of Concert of Europe

There is no doubt that the concert of Europe failed but in any case the importance of the concert of Europe cannot be underestimated. Its importance can be discussed through the following points –

1. The credit goes to the concert that Europe could be saved from war from 1815 to 1848. It played a special role in establishing a peaceful harmony between national movements and rebellion.
2. As a result of the peaceful environment created in Europe, Europe progressed day and night in the field of trade, industry, art and science.
3. As a result of this concert, efforts were made to find solutions to the problems of Europe by sitting together.
4. As a result of the concert of Europe, there was an experiment towards the establishment of an international institution. This concert laid the foundation of international institutions. It would not be an exaggeration to say that the European United System is the forerunner of the League of Nations and the U.N.O.

Metternich System or Era of Metternich

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Nature of Austrian Empire

Austria (Austria-Hungary) played an important role in defeating Napoleon Bonaparte. Therefore, the conference of European nations held in Vienna to decide European matters was influenced by Austrian Chancellor Metternich with his extraordinary wisdom and his name became famous in the whole of Europe. Francis I ruled Austria-Hungary from 1792 AD to 1835 AD and Ferdinand I ruled from 1853 AD to 1848 AD, but the period from 1835 AD to 1848 AD is called the period of Austrian Chancellor Metternich.

As a result of the decisions of the Vienna Congress of 1815, the Austrian Empire became the largest and most important in Europe. The credit for this goes to Metternich. This empire was formed by combining two states of Hungary-Austria and was ruled by the Hobbesburg dynasty. At least 12 different castes lived in the empire whose lifestyle, religion, language etc. were completely different from each other. The western part of the empire was Austria whose capital was Vienna. Mainly people of German caste lived there. The language of the entire empire was declared German and as a result everyone was forced to use it.

Austria was the only state in the whole of Europe which was not affected by the French Revolution of 1739 AD. The state of the rulers of the Hobbesburg dynasty was based on medieval political and social beliefs and feudalism was prevalent in it. The entire society was dominated by privileged nobles and clergy and the common class was being exploited. The rule was completely autocratic and a network of spies and police posts was spread across the empire. The border was kept under strict surveillance so that people with liberal thinking could not enter this empire.

Early life and Rise of Metternich

Count Clemens Metternich, the architect of the fate of the Austrian Empire, was born on 15 May 1773 in the city of Kabels in Austria. His father was a high official with the Holy Roman Emperor. He had a large estate in western Germany on the banks of the Rhine river, which Napoleon had taken over. Metternich hated the brutal acts of the revolutionary parties from the very beginning. At the time of the establishment of the reign of terror in France, many feudal nobles took refuge in Kabel. On hearing their pathetic story, Metternich was deeply impressed and became a staunch enemy of the revolution and started formulating the policy of his future life.

In 1795, Metternich married the granddaughter of Austria’s Chancellor Prince Kantiki, which increased his prestige greatly. In 1809, he became the Chancellor (Prime Minister) of Austria and worked as such till 1848. After Napoleon’s defeat in Waterloo, Metternich came into European politics and for this reason the period from 1815 to 1848 is called the ‘Metternich era’.

“The revolution is the disease. Which must be cured, the volcano which must be extinguished, the gangrene which must be burnt out with the hot iron…” ~ Metternich.

After knowing such views of Metternich, it can certainly be said that h He left no stone unturned to suppress democratic ideas in Europe. He believed that ‘Democracy changes day-light into the darkest light!’

Describing his views related to governance, historian Hein has written that – “He believed in autocratic monarchy and considered himself a soldier sent by God to protect its policies.”

Characteristics of Metternich –

• He was not in favour of changing any system.
• He wanted to establish the system that was before the French Revolution.
• According to him, the king is the representative of God.
• He followed a reactionary policy in Austria and Europe.
• He supported dictatorship and autocratic government.
• He considered nationalism, liberalism and revolutionary sentiments as unnecessary elements.
• To deal with such sentiments and principles, he established police and intelligence system in Austria.
• He banned press, speech and writing, publication.
• He established government control over educational institutions.
• He banned demonstrations.

As a result of the steps and policies he adopted to maintain such an autocratic system, such a system was named ‘Metternich System’.

Historian Heijn has written in his book ‘Modern Europe till 1945’ that “Metternich System was against human nature and modern ideology. It was based on the policy of intervention, intelligence system and strict restrictions on thoughts.”

Home policy of Metternich

While becoming Chancellor and Foreign Minister of Austria, Metternich had decided that he would save Austria from revolutionary and nationalist principles. The sole objective of the policy he adopted in the domestic sphere was to maintain the ancient order in the country through autocratic rule. He considered any kind of reforms as madness. He wanted to maintain the status quo in the ancient order. He had also got his policy approved by the Emperor of Austria, Francis I. He advised the king to rule but not to change. After knowing such thoughts of Metternich, his domestic policy becomes clear automatically. He believed that the peace of Europe depends on ancient institutions and culture. That is why the essence of his domestic policy was to suppress nationalism and democratic ideas. The following are the works done by him in the domestic sphere :-

1. Control on the freedom of citizens – Metternich hurt the freedom of the people. Strict control was established on speech and press. Restrictions were imposed on newspapers, demonstrations and processions. Liberal and democratic ideas were also banned.
2. Formation of new army and police – To suppress the nationalist and revolutionary movements, the help of army and police was taken. The army and police department were given extensive powers. Travelling abroad was prohibited. Along with this, foreigners could not enter Austria now.
3. Intelligence system – To keep a strict eye on the revolutionaries and nationalists, a network of spies was laid in Austria so that every information could be received. If anyone was suspected of being a revolutionary, he was arrested.
4. Rejection of demands related to reforms and nationalism – Adopting a reactionary policy in Austria, he was a staunch opponent of reforms. He considered change to be madness. From this point of view, he showed indifference towards the demands related to reforms raised by the countrymen. Thus, while implementing his policy, nationalists and patriots were thrown into jails.
5. Support of Divine Shark – Metternich considered the emperor to be the representative of God on earth and was a supporter of dictatorial rule. He believed that the public had no participation in the administration and he did not allow any ‘representative assembly’ to flourish in Austria. The public should have full faith in the king with closed eyes.
6. Government control on educational institutions – Metternich tightened the screws on educational institutions to prevent the growth of feelings of nationalism and independence. For example, every activity of universities, colleges and schools was strictly monitored. Students were not allowed to participate in processions and form associations. The spies also kept a strict eye on the professors. The books included in the curriculum were such that they could not develop the feeling of nationalism and independence.
7. Arrangement of checkpoints on the borders – To avoid the danger of revolutionaries and nationalists from other countries entering Austria, Metternich established strict control on the borders and checkpoints were set up here. Inspectors were appointed to monitor these checkpoints.
8. Supporter of the rights of feudal lords – Metternich was a supporter of the special rights of feudal lords. He forced the peasants and labourers to live a miserable life so that they could not demand reforms against feudalism.
9. International cooperation – Metternich tried to get cooperation in the international arena to stop the revolutionary and liberal movements. With this view, he became a member of the ‘Holy Union’ and the ‘Four-Fourth Council’ so that such decisions could be taken in these conferences which would help in stopping revolutionary sentiments.

In this way Metternich protected Austria from liberal and revolutionary ideas. During his time Vienna remained the centre of reactionary ideas in Europe. This policy of Metternich had many adverse consequences. Austria lagged behind in adopting new ideas due to which its development stopped. There is no doubt that Metternich took Austria to great heights in the political field but as far as social and economic fields are concerned, it remained a backward and degraded country. In 1848, Metternich had to leave Vienna and go to England because a revolt had started there. This brought an end to the reactionary policies in Austria.

Foreign Policy of Metternich

As soon as Napoleon fell in France, Metternich took the task of rebuilding Europe in his hands and he played an important role in this direction. When the Vienna Congress was organized in 1815, Metternich was its president. Like a skilled politician, he knew very well that if the reactionary policies were to be continued in Austria, it would be possible only when the neighboring states also supported it. The description of his foreign policy is as follows –

1. Metternich and Germany – According to the Vienna Congress of 1815, a ‘loose union’ of 39 states was formed in Germany. The formation of such a union was in the interest of Austria. Metternich could use the mutual jealousy and hatred of these states against Prussia.
   • After the fall of Napoleon, liberal and nationalist ideologies were gaining strength in Germany. They wanted to establish a central government in Germany so that the interests of the German people could be fulfilled. But this desire of theirs was shattered by the Vienna Conference. In such circumstances, the liberals raised their voice for political reforms.
   • The demand of these liberals was that every state should have its own parliament which should have the right to make laws. They wanted to root out the autocratic rule in these states. In such circumstances, Metternich could not sit quiet. He started taking action to suppress these movements. The liberals were greatly shocked by Metternich’s behaviour but they continued their efforts.
2. Celebrating at Wartburg – Seeing the delicacy of the situation, the liberals intensified their efforts to establish a legitimate rule. In 1817, the students organized a celebration at Wartburg. In this, reactionary policies were criticized and liberal sentiments were advocated. Metternich could not tolerate this. Therefore, he called a meeting of the rulers of Europe in 1819 at Carlsbad.
   • In this meeting, some orders were passed which came to be known as ‘Carlsbad-Decrees’ (1819). By these orders-
     • Revolutionary organizations were banned,
     • Freedom of press and speech was ended.
     • The university was also taken under government control.
     • A network of spies was spread in the state.
   • Carlsbad’s orders proved to be important in the history of Central Europe. This indicates that Metternich had dominance in Austria as well as Germany. He started considering Carlsbad’s orders as his greatest victory. Due to this policy of his, the German states were saved from the revolt of 1820 and 1830. Thus it can be said that Metternich had complete control over Germany. Till 1848, no national movement could succeed there.
3. Metternich and Italy – According to the decision of the Vienna Congress, Metternich established his dominance over various states of Italy. Metternich helped in installing autocratic rulers in these states. According to this agreement, Austria established its dominance over northern and central Italy. There was a total lack of democratic and liberal system in Italy and the people had no participation in the governance. As a result, autocratic governance was established in Italy. Even after all this, revolutionary and national sentiments were present in Italy in some form or the other.
   • The Carbonari Society had a full contribution in highlighting the national sentiments. As a result of the efforts of the nationalists, people revolted in Naples in 1820 AD. In such circumstances, the ruler here accepted the demand of implementing the constitution of 1812 AD. Metternich became frightened after seeing such incidents and called it a danger bell for Europe. He called a conference of the members of the European Union in Lebanon.
   • In this conference, he obtained permission to interfere in the internal affairs of these countries. The Austrian army entered Naples and autocratic rule was established there. A similar revolt took place in Piedmont in 1821 AD, but Metternich crushed it using military power. Metternich expressed his happiness on the crushing of these revolts and said, “I can feel that good days are coming. It is God’s will that the old system should not end.”
4. Metternich and Spain – According to the decision of the Vienna Congress, Emperor Ferdinand VII of the Bourbon dynasty was again enthroned in Spain. He established autocratic rule here and imposed his views harshly on the people. The Spaniards revolted against Ferdinand in 1820 AD. The Emperor accepted their demands and implemented the Constitution of 1812 AD. Metternich could not tolerate this type of constitution and rule. He called a conference in Verona in 1822 AD through which France got the right to interfere in the internal affairs of Spain. France crushed the rebellion in Spain by military action and autocratic rule was again established there. Thus, reactionary policies continued as a result of Metternich’s influence.
5. Metternich and Russia – In 1815, Alexander I ruled Russia. He was a liberal minded ruler. He ended slavery in Russia and decided to implement a written constitution. But Metternich, using his influence, forced the Czar of Russia to change his views. When the people of Spain started a revolt in 1820 and revolts also started in various states of Italy, the Czar of Russia lost faith in the nationalist ideology and became a reactionary ruler. In the Tropo Conference of 1820, the Czar assured to follow Metternich’s policies. From 1820 to 1825, the Czar of Russia remained completely under the influence of Metternich.
6. Metternich and France – The Vienna Congress of 1815 decided to clip the wings of France and Metternich had a special contribution in this. Metternich wanted that a revolution like the one in France should not happen again in Europe, so for this he established states like Belgium, Holland, Switzerland etc. around France. France was asked to pay Rs. 70 crores as compensation for the war. When France paid this amount, the allied countries withdrew their army from there and also included France in the joint system. Metternich saved Austria from the effects of the subsequent revolutions (1830 AD and 1848 AD).
7. Metternich and England – Metternich had good relations with England. England had given full support to Metternich in the Vienna Congress, hence England gave full support to Metternich in the joint system of Europe. But after some time differences between the two emerged. England now started opposing Metternich’s reactionary policies. In the Tropa Conference, England objected to Metternich’s principle of intervening in many countries. Similarly, in the Verona Conference, when Metternich proposed to intervene in Spain’s American colonies, England strongly opposed it. England broke off its ties with the joint system over this matter. Thus Metternich could not make England support reactionary ideas.

Downfall of Metternich or Causes of the failure of Metternich

From 1815 to 1848, Metternich dominated the map of Europe. He was successful to a great extent in maintaining the old system. But he could not completely crush the national sentiments. When the revolutionary movement started in Vienna on 13 March 1848, he could not suppress it and he was forced to leave Vienna and flee to England and he died there in 1856. The following are the reasons for Metternich’s downfall or his failure :-

1. The Reactionary Policy of Metternich – Metternich was full of conservatism. He lacked foresight. He considered the reactionary policy a part of his life but he forgot that change is the essence of life. Metternich termed any change as madness. He could not establish any harmony between the reactionary policies and the ideas of revolution and this became the reason for his downfall.
2. The success of Liberalism and Nationalism – During Metternich’s period, nationalist and liberal ideas were propagated rapidly in various countries of Europe. As a result, important steps were taken in many countries like Belgium, Serbia, Portugal and Spain’s American colonies to gain independence and establish constitutional government. In this way, it was an important success in the direction of nationalism and liberalism.
3. Policy of Interference – Metternich started interfering in the internal affairs of various European countries to suppress the revolutionary and liberal movements. In such circumstances, the European countries started considering Metternich as their enemy and became his opponents. As a result, Metternich’s downfall was certain.
4. Industrial Revolution – Industrial revolution started in the 19th century in the European countries and industries were established. A change started appearing in the political, economic and social structure of Europe. Due to new inventions, the economic condition of these countries changed and the spirit of socialism got encouraged. Metternich could not compromise with these circumstances because he wanted to maintain the old and conservative system.
5. Opposition of Metternich in Austria – People of different castes, religions and languages ​​lived in Austria. Metternich had imposed many unfair restrictions here like ban on education, press and trade etc. But gradually voices started rising against these restrictions. Liberals turned against Metternich’s system. Hence Metternich’s policies started getting criticized in different parts of Austria.
6. Revolution of France, 1848 – In 1848, the third revolution took place in France according to which monarchy ended and republic was established. This revolution became the immediate cause of Metternich’s downfall. As soon as the news of the French revolution spread, rebellions started in many parts of Germany and Italy.

As a result of this revolution, rebellion started in Vienna in 1848. The protesters started shouting slogans of ‘Death to Metternich’. Metternich left Austria and fled to England and the reactionary policies came to an end.

Evaluation of Metternich’s Functions

Metternich was a great personality of the 19th century. That is why the period from 1815-1845 is known as the ‘Metternich era’. He was the ruler who built not only Austria but also Europe. The peace that was established in Europe for about 40 years shows his success. He felt proud of himself. He used to say, “Wherever I am, people are attracted towards me and have expectations from me.”

He always supported the reactionaries. He adopted the policy of ‘status-quo’ in Europe. Metternich was another name for reactionism. Historians have evaluated his policies in the following manner – “Unstatesman like obtuseness towards the needs of the age and an unpardonable hostility to the desires of the people.”

Scholars believe that the objective of the system adopted by Metternich was to establish peace and security. If there was no major war in Europe between 1815 and 1848, it was possible only because of Metternich. To say that Metternich’s policy was repressive and reactionary and all the steps he took were wrong does not seem to be appropriate. Due to the presence of people of different languages, classes, castes, religions in Austria and keeping their interests in mind, Metternich considered the reactionary policy to be correct. As soon as Austria abandoned its reactionary policies after his fall, Austria was divided into many pieces.

Despite all this, we cannot deny that the policy adopted by Metternich in Austria was not in the interest of Austria. He used his energy in maintaining the old system. Austria’s development stopped in every field and it became a backward country. While evaluating Metternich’s work, Prof. Fisher believes that – “Metternich had many attributes of a great political leader, brilliant and engaging presence, a cool head, a vast comprehension of affairs, a firm and patriotic will.”

Similar words are also of historian Feke. According to him, “He was a person whose principles were very strict and whose influence was great.”

Thus we can say that Metternich was an enemy of revolution with liberal sentiments and he had full faith in reactionary policy. Metternich was actually not a person but a system. Because of the contribution he made in the creation of Europe, he used to say that people considered him like a ‘messiah’.